Melt inclusion

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Multiple melt inclusions in an olivine crystal. Individual inclusions are oval or round in shape and consist of clear glass, together with a small round vapor bubble and in some cases a small square spinel crystal. The black arrow points to one good example, but there are several others. The occurrence of multiple inclusions within a single crystal is relatively common Melt inclusions 2.jpg
Multiple melt inclusions in an olivine crystal. Individual inclusions are oval or round in shape and consist of clear glass, together with a small round vapor bubble and in some cases a small square spinel crystal. The black arrow points to one good example, but there are several others. The occurrence of multiple inclusions within a single crystal is relatively common

A melt inclusion is a small parcel or "blobs" of melt(s) that is entrapped by crystals growing [1] in magma and eventually forming igneous rocks. In many respects it is analogous to a fluid inclusion within magmatic hydrothermal systems. [2] [3] Melt inclusions tend to be microscopic in size and can be analyzed for volatile contents that are used to interpret trapping pressures of the melt at depth.

Contents

Characteristics

Melt inclusions are generally small - most are less than 80 micrometres across (a micrometre is one thousandth of a millimeter, or about 0.00004 inches). [4] They may contain a number of different constituents, including glass (which represents melt that has been quenched by rapid cooling), small crystals and a separate vapour-rich bubble. [5] They occur in the crystals that can be found in igneous rocks, such as for example quartz, feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, nepheline, magnetite, perovskite and apatite. [6] [7] [8] Melt inclusions can be found in both volcanic and plutonic rocks. In addition, melt inclusions can contain immiscible (non-miscible) melt phases and their study is an exceptional way to find direct evidence for presence of two or more melts at entrapment. [5]

Analysis

Although they are small, melt inclusions can provide an abundance of useful information. Using microscopic observations and a range of chemical microanalysis techniques geochemists and igneous petrologists can obtain a range of unique information from melt inclusions. There are various techniques used in analyzing melt inclusion H2O and CO2 contents, major, minor and trace elements including double-sided FTIR micro transmittance, [9] single-sided FTIR micro reflectance, [10] Raman spectroscopy, [11] microthermometry, [12] Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS), Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICPMS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA). [13] If there is a vapor bubble present within the melt inclusion, analysis of the vapor bubble must be taken into consideration when reconstructing the total volatile budget of the melt inclusion. [14]

Microthermometry

Microthermometry is the process of reheating a melt inclusion to its original melt temperature and then rapidly quenching to form a homogenous glass phase free of daughter minerals or vapor bubbles that may have been originally contained within the melt inclusion. [15]

Microscope-mounted high temperature stage heating

Stage heating is the process of heating a melt inclusion on a microscope-mounted stage and flowing either helium gas (Vernadsky stage) [16] [17] or argon gas (Linkam TS1400XY) [18] over the stage and then rapidly quenching the melt inclusion after it has reached its original melt temperature to form a homogenous glass phase. Use of a heating stage allows for observation of changing phases of the melt inclusion as it is reheated to its original melt temperature. [19]

One atmosphere vertical furnaces

This process allows for reheating of one or more melt inclusions in a furnace held at a constant pressure of one atmosphere to their original melt temperatures and then rapidly quenching in water to produce a homogenous glass phase. [20]

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

FTIR is an analytical method which uses an infrared laser focused on a spot on the glass phase of the melt inclusion to determine an absorption (or extinction) coefficient for either H2O and CO2 associated with wavelengths for each species depending on the parent lithology that contained the melt inclusion. [10] [21]

Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy is similar to FTIR in using a focused laser on the glass phase of the melt inclusion [22] [23] or a vapor bubble [24] that may be contained in the melt inclusion to identify wavelengths associated with the Raman vibrating bands of volatiles, such as H2O and CO2. Raman spectroscopy can also be used to determine the density of CO2 contained in a vapor bubble if present at a high enough concentration within a melt inclusion. [11]

Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)

SIMS is used to determine volatile and trace element concentrations by aiming an ion beam (16O− or 133Cs+) at the melt inclusion to produce secondary ions that can be measured by a mass spectrometer. [25]

Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICPMS)

LA-ICP-MS can determine major and trace elements, however, with LA-ICPMS, the melt inclusion and any accompanying materials within the melt inclusion are ionized, thus destroying the melt inclusion, and then analyzed with a mass spectrometer. [26] [27]

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Scanning electron microscopy is a useful tool to employ before any of the above analyses that may result in loss of the original material since it can be used to check for daughter minerals or vapor bubbles and help determine the best technique that should be chosen for melt inclusion analysis. [4]

Electron Microprobe Analysis (EPMA)

Electron microprobe analysis is ubiquitous in the analysis of major and minor elements in melt inclusions and provide oxide concentrations used in determining parental magma types of the melt inclusions and phenocryst hosts. [28]

X-ray microtomography

Melt inclusions have been imaged in three dimensions using X-ray microtomography. [29] This method can be used to determine the dimensions of different phases present in melt inclusions more precisely than by using visible light microscopy.

Interpretation

Volatile Concentrations

Melt inclusions can be used to determine the composition, compositional evolution and volatile components [14] of magmas that existed in the history of magma systems. This is because melt inclusions act as a tiny pressure vessel that isolates and preserves the ambient melt surrounding the crystal before they are modified by later processes, such as post-entrapment crystallization. [4] Given that melt inclusions form at varying pressures (P) and temperatures (T), they can also provide important information about the entrapping conditions (P-T) at depth and their volatile contents (H2O, CO2, S, Cl and F) that drive volcanic eruptions. [21]

Vapor Bubbles

Melt inclusion with accompanying vapor bubble from an olivine crystal. Collected from ash related to the 1992 eruption of Cerro Negro Volcano, Nicaragua Vapor Bubble 2.png
Melt inclusion with accompanying vapor bubble from an olivine crystal. Collected from ash related to the 1992 eruption of Cerro Negro Volcano, Nicaragua
Animation of a melt inclusion viewed in transmitted light. MI bubble.gif
Animation of a melt inclusion viewed in transmitted light.

The presence of a vapor bubble adds an additional component for analysis given that the vapor bubble could contain a significant proportion of the H2O and CO2 originally in the melt sampled by the melt inclusion. [16] [30] If the vapor bubble is composed primarily of CO2, Raman spectroscopy can be used to determine the density of CO2 present. [31] [11]

Major, minor and trace element concentrations

Major and minor element concentrations are generally determined using EPMA and common element compositions include Si, Ti, Al, Cr, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Ni, Na, K, P, Cl, F and S. [32] Knowledge of the oxide concentrations related to these major and minor elements can help to determine the composition of the parental magma, the melt inclusion and the phenocryst hosts. [28]

Trace element concentrations can be measured by SIMS analysis with resolution in some cases as low as 1 ppm. [33] LA-ICPMS analyses can also be used to determine trace element concentrations, however lower resolution compared to SIMS does not provide determination of concentrations as low as 1 ppm. [5]

History

Henry Clifton Sorby, in 1858, was the first to document microscopic melt inclusions in crystals. [34] The study of melt inclusions has been driven more recently by the development of sophisticated chemical analysis techniques. Scientists from the former Soviet Union lead the study of melt inclusions in the decades after World War II, [35] and developed methods for heating melt inclusions under a microscope, so changes could be directly observed. A.T. Anderson explored analysis of melt inclusions from basaltic magmas from Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii to determine initial volatile concentrations of magma at depth. [36]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magma</span> Hot semifluid material found beneath the surface of Earth

Magma is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basalt</span> Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock

Basalt is an aphanitic (fine-grained) extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron exposed at or very near the surface of a rocky planet or moon. More than 90% of all volcanic rock on Earth is basalt. Rapid-cooling, fine-grained basalt is chemically equivalent to slow-cooling, coarse-grained gabbro. The eruption of basalt lava is observed by geologists at about 20 volcanoes per year. Basalt is also an important rock type on other planetary bodies in the Solar System. For example, the bulk of the plains of Venus, which cover ~80% of the surface, are basaltic; the lunar maria are plains of flood-basaltic lava flows; and basalt is a common rock on the surface of Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forsterite</span> Magnesium end-member of olivine, a nesosilicate mineral

Forsterite (Mg2SiO4; commonly abbreviated as Fo; also known as white olivine) is the magnesium-rich end-member of the olivine solid solution series. It is isomorphous with the iron-rich end-member, fayalite. Forsterite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (space group Pbnm) with cell parameters a 4.75 Å (0.475 nm), b 10.20 Å (1.020 nm) and c 5.98 Å (0.598 nm).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluid inclusion</span>

A fluid inclusion is a bubble of liquid and/or gas that is trapped within a crystal. As minerals often form from a liquid or aqueous medium, tiny bubbles of that liquid can become trapped within the crystal, or along healed crystal fractures. These inclusions usually range in size from 0.01 mm to 1 mm and are only visible in detail by microscopic study, however specimens of fenster or skeletal quartz may include thin sheet-like inclusions that are many millimetres in length and breadth within their lamellar voids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Komatiite</span> Magnesium-rich igneous rock

Komatiite is a type of ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rock defined as having crystallised from a lava of at least 18 wt% magnesium oxide (MgO). It is classified as a 'picritic rock'. Komatiites have low silicon, potassium and aluminium, and high to extremely high magnesium content. Komatiite was named for its type locality along the Komati River in South Africa, and frequently displays spinifex texture composed of large dendritic plates of olivine and pyroxene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic gas</span> Gases given off by active volcanoes

Volcanic gases are gases given off by active volcanoes. These include gases trapped in cavities (vesicles) in volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases emanating from lava, from volcanic craters or vents. Volcanic gases can also be emitted through groundwater heated by volcanic action.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cumulate rock</span> Igneous rocks formed by the accumulation of crystals from a magma either by settling or floating.

Cumulate rocks are igneous rocks formed by the accumulation of crystals from a magma either by settling or floating. Cumulate rocks are named according to their texture; cumulate texture is diagnostic of the conditions of formation of this group of igneous rocks. Cumulates can be deposited on top of other older cumulates of different composition and colour, typically giving the cumulate rock a layered or banded appearance.

In geology, igneous differentiation, or magmatic differentiation, is an umbrella term for the various processes by which magmas undergo bulk chemical change during the partial melting process, cooling, emplacement, or eruption. The sequence of magmas produced by igneous differentiation is known as a magma series.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fractional crystallization (geology)</span> Process of rock formation

Fractional crystallization, or crystal fractionation, is one of the most important geochemical and physical processes operating within crust and mantle of a rocky planetary body, such as the Earth. It is important in the formation of igneous rocks because it is one of the main processes of magmatic differentiation. Fractional crystallization is also important in the formation of sedimentary evaporite rocks or simply fractional crystallization is the removal of early formed crystals from an Original homogeneous magma so that the crystals are prevented from further reaction with the residual melt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geothermobarometry</span> History of rock pressure and temperature

Geothermobarometry is the methodology for estimating the pressure and temperature history of rocks. Geothermobarometry is a combination of geobarometry, where the pressure attained by a mineral assemblage is estimated, and geothermometry where the temperature attained by a mineral assemblage is estimated.

Partial melting is the phenomenon that occurs when a rock is subjected to temperatures high enough to cause certain minerals to melt, but not all of them. Partial melting is an important part of the formation of all igneous rocks and some metamorphic rocks, as evidenced by a multitude of geochemical, geophysical and petrological studies.

Magmatic water, also known as juvenile water, is an aqueous phase in equilibrium with minerals that have been dissolved by magma deep within the Earth's crust and is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. It plays a key role in assessing the crystallization of igneous rocks, particularly silicates, as well as the rheology and evolution of magma chambers. Magma is composed of minerals, crystals and volatiles in varying relative natural abundance. Magmatic differentiation varies significantly based on various factors, most notably the presence of water. An abundance of volatiles within magma chambers decreases viscosity and leads to the formation of minerals bearing halogens, including chloride and hydroxide groups. In addition, the relative abundance of volatiles varies within basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic magma chambers, leading to some volcanoes being exceedingly more explosive than others. Magmatic water is practically insoluble in silicate melts but has demonstrated the highest solubility within rhyolitic melts. An abundance of magmatic water has been shown to lead to high-grade deformation, altering the amount of δ18O and δ2H within host rocks.

Tectonic–climatic interaction is the interrelationship between tectonic processes and the climate system. The tectonic processes in question include orogenesis, volcanism, and erosion, while relevant climatic processes include atmospheric circulation, orographic lift, monsoon circulation and the rain shadow effect. As the geological record of past climate changes over millions of years is sparse and poorly resolved, many questions remain unresolved regarding the nature of tectonic-climate interaction, although it is an area of active research by geologists and palaeoclimatologists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Titanium in zircon geothermometry</span>

Titanium in zircon geothermometry is a form of a geothermometry technique by which the crystallization temperature of a zircon crystal can be estimated by the amount of titanium atoms which can only be found in the crystal lattice. In zircon crystals, titanium is commonly incorporated, replacing similarly charged zirconium and silicon atoms. This process is relatively unaffected by pressure and highly temperature dependent, with the amount of titanium incorporated rising exponentially with temperature, making this an accurate geothermometry method. This measurement of titanium in zircons can be used to estimate the cooling temperatures of the crystal and infer conditions during which it crystallized. Compositional changes in the crystals growth rings can be used to estimate the thermodynamic history of the entire crystal. This method is useful as it can be combined with radiometric dating techniques that are commonly used with zircon crystals, to correlate quantitative temperature measurements with specific absolute ages. This technique can be used to estimate early Earth conditions, determine metamorphic facies, or to determine the source of detrital zircons, among other uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geology applications of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy</span>

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a spectroscopic technique that has been used for analyzing the fundamental molecular structure of geological samples in recent decades. As in other infrared spectroscopy, the molecules in the sample are excited to a higher energy state due to the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation emitted from the IR source in the instrument, which results in vibrations of molecular bonds. The intrinsic physicochemical property of each particular molecule determines its corresponding IR absorbance peak, and therefore can provide characteristic fingerprints of functional groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mark S. Ghiorso</span> American geochemist

Mark S. Ghiorso is an American geochemist who resides in Seattle, Washington. He is best known for creating MELTS, a software tool for thermodynamic modeling of phase equilibria in magmatic systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crystal mush</span>

A crystal mush is magma that contains a significant amount of crystals suspended in the liquid phase (melt). As the crystal fraction makes up less than half of the volume, there is no rigid large-scale three-dimensional network as in solids. As such, their rheological behavior mirrors that of absolute liquids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mariana mud volcanoes</span>

Mud volcanoes in the Mariana fore-arc are a hydrothermal geologic landform that erupt slurries of mud, water, and gas. There are at least 10 mud volcanoes in the Mariana fore-arc that are actively erupting, including the recently studied Conical, Yinazao, Fantagisna, Asut Tesoro, and South Chamorro serpentinite mud volcanoes. These mud volcanoes erupt a unique serpentinite mud composition that is related to the geologic setting in which they have formed. Serpentinite mud is the product of mantle metasomatism due to subduction zone metamorphism and slab dehydration. As a result, the serpentinite mud that erupts from these mud volcanoes often contains pieces of mantle peridotite material that has not fully altered during the serpentinization process. In addition to pieces of altered mantle material, pieces of subducted seamounts have also been found within the serpentinite muds. Serpentinite mud volcanoes in the Mariana fore-arc are often located above faults in the fore-arc crust. These faults act as conduits for the hydrated mantle material to ascend towards the surface. The Mariana mud volcanoes provide a direct window into the process of mantle hydration that leads to the production of arc magmas and volcanic eruptions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diamond inclusions</span>

Diamond inclusions are the non-diamond materials that get encapsulated inside diamond during its formation process in the mantle. The trapped materials can be other minerals or fluids like water. Since diamonds have high strength and low reactivity with either the inclusion or the volcanic host rocks which carry the diamond to the Earth's surface, the diamond serves as a container that preserves the included material intact under the changing conditions from the mantle to the surface. Although diamonds can only place a lower bound on the pressure of their formation, many inclusions provide additional constraints on the pressure, temperature and even age of formation.

References

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  29. ↑ Richard, Antonin; Morlot, Christophe; Créon, Laura; Beaudoin, Nicolas; Balistky, Vladimir; Pentelei, Svetlana; Dyja-Person, Vanessa; Giuliani, Gaston; Pignatelli, Isabella; Legros, Hélène; Sterpenich, Jérôme; Pironon, Jacques (2019). "Advances in 3D imaging and volumetric reconstruction of fluid and melt inclusions by high resolution X-ray computed tomography". Chemical Geology. 508: 3–14. Bibcode:2019ChGeo.508....3R. doi: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2018.06.012 .
  30. ↑ Aster, Ellen M.; Wallace, Paul J.; Moore, Lowell R.; Watkins, James; Gazel, Esteban; Bodnar, Robert J. (2016). "Reconstructing CO2 concentrations in basaltic melt inclusions using Raman analysis of vapor bubbles". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 323: 148–162. Bibcode:2016JVGR..323..148A. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.04.028.
  31. ↑ Steele-Macinnis, M.; Esposito, R.; Bodnar, R. J. (2011). "Thermodynamic Model for the Effect of Post-entrapment Crystallization on the H2O-CO2 Systematics of Vapor-saturated, Silicate Melt Inclusions". Journal of Petrology. 52 (12): 2461–2482. doi: 10.1093/petrology/egr052 . ISSN   0022-3530.
  32. ↑ Straub, Susanne M.; Layne, Graham D. (2003). "The systematics of chlorine, fluorine, and water in Izu arc front volcanic rocks: Implications for volatile recycling in subduction zones". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 67 (21): 4179–4203. Bibcode:2003GeCoA..67.4179S. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00307-7.
  33. ↑ Audetat, A.; Lowenstern, J.B.; Turekian, H.D.; Holland, K.K. (2014). Treatise on Geochemistry (Second ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 143–173. ISBN   978-0-08-098300-4.
  34. ↑ Sorby, H. C. (1858). "On the microscopic structures of crystals, indicating the origin of minerals and rocks". Geological Society of London Quarterly Journal. 14 (1–2): 453–500. doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1858.014.01-02.44. hdl: 2027/hvd.32044103124566 . S2CID   128592719.
  35. ↑ V. S., Sobolev; Kostyuk, V. P. (1975). "Magmatic crystallization based on a study of melt inclusions". Fluid Inclusion Research. 9: 182–235.
  36. ↑ Anderson, A.T.; Wright, T.L. (1972). "Phenocrysts and glass inclusions and their bearing on oxidation and mixing of basaltic magmas, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii". American Mineralogist. 57: 188–216.

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