Mold health issues

Last updated

Light micrograph of the hyphae and spores of the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus fumigatus 01.jpg
Light micrograph of the hyphae and spores of the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus

Mold health issues refer to the harmful health effects of molds ("moulds" in British English) and their mycotoxins.

Contents

Molds are ubiquitous in the biosphere, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. The vast majority of molds are not hazardous to humans, and reaction to molds can vary between individuals, with relatively minor allergic reactions being the most common. [1] The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported in its June 2006 report, 'Mold Prevention Strategies and Possible Health Effects in the Aftermath of Hurricanes and Major Floods,' that "excessive exposure to mold-contaminated materials can cause adverse health effects in susceptible persons regardless of the type of mold or the extent of contamination." [2] When mold spores are present in abnormally high quantities, they can present especially hazardous health risks to humans after prolonged exposure, including allergic reactions or poisoning by mycotoxins, [3] or causing fungal infection (mycosis). [4]

Health effects

People who are atopic (sensitive), already have allergies, asthma, or compromised immune systems [5] and occupy damp or moldy buildings [6] are at an increased risk of health problems such as inflammatory responses to mold spores, metabolites such as mycotoxins, and other components. [7] Other problems are respiratory and/or immune system responses including respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, and rarely hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic alveolitis, chronic rhinosinusitis and allergic fungal sinusitis. A person's reaction to mold depends on their sensitivity and other health conditions, the amount of mold present, length of exposure, and the type of mold or mold products.

The five most common genera of indoor molds are Cladosporium , Penicillium , Aspergillus , Alternaria , and Trichoderma .

Damp environments that allow mold to grow can also allow the proliferation of bacteria and release volatile organic compounds.

Symptoms of mold exposure

Symptoms of mold exposure can include: [8]

Health effects linking to asthma

Adverse respiratory health effects are associated with occupancy in buildings with moisture and mold damage. [9] Infants in homes with mold have a much greater risk of developing asthma and allergic rhinitis. [10] [11] Infants may develop respiratory symptoms due to exposure to a specific type of fungal mold, called Penicillium. Signs that an infant may have mold-related respiratory problems include (but are not limited to) a persistent cough and wheeze. Increased exposure increases the probability of developing respiratory symptoms during their first year of life. [12] As many as 21% of asthma cases may result from exposure to mold. [6]

Mold exposures have a variety of health effects depending on the person. Some people are more sensitive to mold than others. Exposure to mold can cause several health issues such as; throat irritation, nasal stuffiness, eye irritation, cough, and wheezing, as well as skin irritation in some cases. Exposure to mold may also cause heightened sensitivity depending on the time and nature of exposure. People at higher risk for mold allergies are people with chronic lung illnesses and weak immune systems, which can often result in more severe reactions when exposed to mold. [13]

There has been sufficient evidence that damp indoor environments are correlated with upper respiratory tract symptoms such as coughing, and wheezing in people with asthma. [14]

Flood-specific mold health effects

Among children and adolescents, the most common health effect post-flooding was lower respiratory tract symptoms, though there was a lack of association with measurements of total fungi. [15] Another study found that these respiratory symptoms were positively associated with exposure to water damaged homes, exposure included being inside without participating in clean up. [15] Despite lower respiratory effects among all children, there was a significant difference in health outcomes between children with pre-existing conditions and children without. [15] Children with pre-existing conditions were at greater risk that can likely be attributed to the greater disruption of care in the face of flooding and natural disaster. [15] [16]

Although mold is the primary focus post flooding for residents, the effects of dampness [17] alone must also be considered. According to the Institute of Medicine, there is a significant association between dampness in the home and wheeze, cough, and upper respiratory symptoms. [18] A later analysis determined that 30% to 50% of asthma-related health outcomes are associated with not only mold, but also dampness in buildings. [18]

While there is a proven correlation between mold exposure and the development of upper and lower respiratory syndromes, there are still fewer incidences of negative health effects than one might expect. [19] Barbeau and colleagues suggested that studies do not show a greater impact from mold exposure for several reasons: 1) the types of health effects are not severe and are therefore not caught; 2) people whose homes have flooded find alternative housing to prevent exposure; 3) self-selection, the healthier people participated in mold clean-up and were less likely to get sick; 4) exposures were time-limited as result of remediation efforts and; 5) the lack of access to health care post-flooding may result in fewer illnesses being discovered and reported for their association with mold. [19] There are also certain notable scientific limitations in studying the exposure effects of dampness and molds on individuals because there are currently no known biomarkers that can prove that a person was exclusively exposed to molds. [20] Thus, it is currently impossible to prove correlation between mold exposure and symptoms. [20] [21]

Mold-associated conditions

Health problems associated with high levels of airborne mold spores include allergic reactions, asthma episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat, sinus congestion, and other respiratory problems. [22] Several studies and reviews have suggested that childhood exposure to dampness and mold might contribute to the development of asthma. [23] [24] [25] [26] For example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. [27] When mold spores are inhaled by an immunocompromised individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, [28] attaching to cells along the respiratory tract and causing further problems. [29] [30] Generally, when this occurs, the illness is an epiphenomenon and not the primary pathology. Also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity.

Fungal infection

A serious health threat from mold exposure for immunocompromised individuals is systemic fungal infection (systemic mycosis). Immunocompromised individuals exposed to high levels of mold, or individuals with chronic exposure may become infected. [31] [32] Sinuses and digestive tract infections are most common; lung and skin infections are also possible. Mycotoxins may or may not be produced by the invading mold.

Dermatophytes are the parasitic fungi that cause skin infections such as athlete's foot and tinea cruris. Most dermatophyte fungi take the form of mold, as opposed to a yeast, with an appearance (when cultured) that is similar to other molds.

Opportunistic infection by molds [33] such as Talaromyces marneffei and Aspergillus fumigatus is a common cause of illness and death among immunocompromised people, including people with AIDS or asthma. [34] [35]

Mold-induced hypersensitivity

The most common form of hypersensitivity is caused by the direct exposure to inhaled mold spores that can be dead or alive or hyphal fragments which can lead to allergic asthma or allergic rhinitis. [36] The most common effects are rhinorrhea (runny nose), watery eyes, coughing and asthma attacks. Another form of hypersensitivity is hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Exposure can occur at home, at work or in other settings. [36] [37] It is predicted that about 5% of people have some airway symptoms due to allergic reactions to molds in their lifetimes. [38]

Hypersensitivity may also be a reaction toward an established fungal infection in allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.

Mycotoxin toxicity

Some molds excrete toxic compounds called mycotoxins, secondary metabolites produced by fungi under certain environmental conditions. These environmental conditions affect the production of mycotoxins at the transcription level. Temperature, water activity and pH, strongly influence mycotoxin biosynthesis by increasing the level of transcription within the fungal spore. It has also been found that low levels of fungicides can boost mycotoxin synthesis. [39] [40] Certain mycotoxins can be harmful or lethal to humans and animals when exposure is high enough. [41] [42]

Extreme exposure to very high levels of mycotoxins can lead to neurological problems and, in some cases, death; fortunately, such exposures rarely to never occur in normal exposure scenarios, even in residences with serious mold problems. [43] Prolonged exposure, such as daily workplace exposure, can be particularly harmful. [44]

It is thought that all molds may produce mycotoxins, [45] and thus all molds may be potentially toxic if large enough quantities are ingested, or the human becomes exposed to extreme quantities of mold. Mycotoxins are not produced all the time, but only under specific growing conditions. Mycotoxins are harmful or lethal to humans and animals only when exposure is high enough. [46] [47]

Mycotoxins can be found on the mold spore and mold fragments, and therefore they can also be found on the substrate upon which the mold grows. Routes of entry for these insults can include ingestion, dermal exposure, and inhalation.

Aflatoxin is an example of a mycotoxin. It is a cancer-causing poison produced by certain fungi in or on foods and feeds, especially in field corn and peanuts. [48]

Exposure sources and prevention

The primary sources of mold exposure are from the indoor air in buildings with substantial mold growth and the ingestion of food with mold growths.

Air

While mold and related microbial agents can be found both inside and outside, specific factors can lead to significantly higher levels of these microbes, creating a potential health hazard. Several notable factors are water damage in buildings, the use of building materials which provide a suitable substrate and source of food to amplify mold growth, relative humidity, and energy-efficient building designs, which can prevent proper circulation of outside air and create a unique ecology in the built environment. [49] [50] [51] [52] A common issue with mold hazards in the household can be the placement of furniture, resulting in a lack of ventilation of the nearby wall. The simplest method of avoiding mold in a home so affected is to move the furniture in question.

More than half of adult workers in moldy/humid buildings suffer from nasal or sinus symptoms due to mold exposure. [11]

Prevention of mold exposure and its ensuing health issues begins with the prevention of mold growth in the first place by avoiding a mold-supporting environment. Extensive flooding and water damage can support extensive mold growth. Following hurricanes, homes with greater flood damage, especially those with more than 3 feet (0.91 m) of indoor flooding, demonstrated far higher levels of mold growth compared with homes with little or no flooding. [53]

It is useful to perform an assessment of the location and extent of the mold hazard in a structure. Various practices of remediation can be followed to mitigate mold issues in buildings, the most important of which is to reduce moisture levels. [54] Removal of affected materials after the source of moisture has been reduced and/or eliminated may be necessary, as some materials cannot be remediated. [55] Thus, the concept of mold growth, assessment, and remediation is essential in preventing health issues arising due to the presence of dampness and mold.

Molds may excrete liquids or low-volatility gases, but the concentrations are so low that frequently they cannot be detected even with sensitive analytical sampling techniques. Sometimes, these by-products are detectable by odor, in which case they are referred to as "ergonomic odors", meaning the odors are noticeable but do not indicate toxicologically significant exposures.

Food

Moldy nectarines that were in a refrigerator. The nectarine with black mold is also affecting the nectarine underneath. Moldy nectarines.jpg
Moldy nectarines that were in a refrigerator. The nectarine with black mold is also affecting the nectarine underneath.

Molds that are often found on meat and poultry include members of the genera Alternaria , Aspergillus , Botrytis, Cladosporium , Fusarium , Geotrichum , Mortierella , Mucor , Neurospora , Paecilomyces , Penicillium , and Rhizopus . [56] Grain crops in particular incur considerable losses both in field and storage due to pathogens, post-harvest spoilage, and insect damage. A number of common microfungi are important agents of post-harvest spoilage, notably members of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. [56] A number of these produce mycotoxins (soluble, non-volatile toxins produced by a range of microfungi that demonstrate specific and potent toxic properties on human and animal cells [57] ) that can render foods unfit for consumption. When ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through skin, mycotoxins may cause or contribute to a range of effects from reduced appetite and general malaise to acute illness or death in rare cases. [58] [59] [60] Mycotoxins may also contribute to cancer. Dietary exposure to the mycotoxin aflatoxin B1, commonly produced by growth of the fungus Aspergillus flavus on improperly stored ground nuts in many areas of the developing world, is known to independently (and synergistically with Hepatitis B virus) induce liver cancer. [61] Mycotoxin-contaminated grain and other food products have a significant impact on human and animal health globally. According to the World Health Organization, roughly 25% of the world's food may be contaminated by mycotoxins. [58]

Prevention of mold exposure from food is generally to consume food that has no mold growths on it. [48] Also, mold growth in the first place can be prevented by the same concept of mold growth, assessment, and remediation that prevents air exposure. Also, it is especially useful to clean the inside of the refrigerator and to ensure dishcloths, towels, sponges, and mops are clean. [48]

Ruminants are considered to have increased resistance to some mycotoxins, presumably due to the superior mycotoxin-degrading capabilities of their gut microbiota. [58] The passage of mycotoxins through the food chain may also have important consequences on human health. [62] For example, in China in December 2011, high levels of carcinogen aflatoxin M1 in Mengniu brand milk were found to be associated with the consumption of mold-contaminated feed by dairy cattle. [63]

Bedding

Bacteria, fungi, allergens, and particle-bound semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) can all be found in bedding and pillows with possible consequences for human health given the high amount of exposure each day. [64] Over 47 species of fungi have been identified in pillows, although the typical range of species found in a single pillow varied between four and sixteen. [65] Compared to feather pillows, synthetic pillows typically display a slightly greater variety of fungal species and significantly higher levels of β‐(1,3)‐glucan, which can cause inflammatory responses. [66] [67] The authors concluded that these and related results suggest feather bedding might be a more appropriate choice for asthmatics than synthetics. Some newer bedding products incorporate silver nanoparticles due to their antibacterial, [68] [69] [70] antifungal, [71] and antiviral [72] properties; however, the long-term safety of this additional exposure to these nanoparticles is relatively unknown, and a conservative approach to the use of these products is recommended. [73]

Flooding

Flooding in houses causes a unique opportunity for mold growth, which may be attributed to adverse health effects in people exposed to the mold, especially children and adolescents. In a study on the health effects of mold exposure after hurricanes Katrina and Rita, the predominant types of mold were Aspergillus , Penicillium , and Cladosporium with indoor spore counts ranging from 6,142 – 735,123 spores m−3. [19] Molds isolated following flooding were different from mold previously reported for non-water damaged homes in the area. [19] Further research found that homes with greater than three feet of indoor flooding demonstrated significantly higher levels of mold than those with little or no flooding. [19]

Mitigation

Recommended strategies to prevent mold include avoiding mold-contamination; utilization of environmental controls; the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), including skin and eye protection and respiratory protection; and environmental controls such as ventilation and suppression of dust. [74] When mold cannot be prevented, the CDC recommends clean-up protocol including first taking emergency action to stop water intrusion. [74] Second, they recommend determining the extent of water damage and mold contamination. And third, they recommend planning remediation activities such as establishing containment and protection for workers and occupants; eliminating water or moisture sources if possible; decontaminating or removing damaged materials and drying any wet materials; evaluating whether space has been successfully remediated; and reassembling the space to control sources of moisture. [74]

History

In 1698, the physician Sir John Floyer published the first edition of A Treatise of the Asthma, the first English textbook on the malady. In it, he describes how dampness and mold could trigger an asthmatic attack, specifically, "damp houses and fenny [boggy] countries". He also writes of an asthmatic "who fell into a violent fit by going into a Wine-Cellar", presumably due to the "fumes" in the air. [75] [76]

In the 1930s, mold was identified as the cause behind the mysterious deaths of farm animals in Russia and other countries. Stachybotrys chartarum was found growing on the wet grain used for animal feed. Illness and death also occurred in humans when starving peasants ate large quantities of rotten food grains and cereals heavily overgrown with the Stachybotrys mold. [77]

In the 1970s, building construction techniques changed in response to changing economic realities, including the energy crisis. As a result, homes, and buildings became more airtight. Also, cheaper materials such as drywall came into common use. The newer building materials reduced the drying potential of the structures, making moisture problems more prevalent. This combination of increased moisture and suitable substrates contributed to increased mold growth inside buildings. [78]

Today, the US Food and Drug Administration and the agriculture industry closely monitor mold and mycotoxin levels in grains and foodstuffs to keep the contamination of animal feed and human food supplies below specific levels. In 2005, Diamond Pet Foods, a US pet food manufacturer, experienced a significant rise in the number of corn shipments containing elevated levels of aflatoxin. This mold toxin eventually made it into the pet food supply, and dozens of dogs and cats died before the company was forced to recall affected products. [79] [80]

In November 2022, a UK coroner recorded that a two-year-old child, Awaab Ishak from Rochdale, England, died in 2020 of "acute airway oedema with severe granulomatous tracheobronchitis due to environmental mould exposure" in his home. [81] [82] The finding led to a 2023 change in UK law, known as Awaab's Law, which will require social housing providers to remedy reported damp and mould within certain time limits. [83]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mold</span> Wooly, dust-like fungal structure or substance

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

An allergen is an otherwise harmless substance that triggers an allergic reaction in sensitive individuals by stimulating an immune response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoor air quality</span> Air quality within and around buildings and structures

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within buildings and structures. Poor indoor air quality due to indoor air pollution is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. It has also been linked to sick building syndrome, respiratory issues, reduced productivity, and impaired learning in schools. Common pollutants of indoor air include: secondhand tobacco smoke, air pollutants from indoor combustion, radon, molds and other allergens, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, legionella and other bacteria, asbestos fibers, carbon dioxide, ozone and particulates.

<i>Aspergillus niger</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus niger is a mold classified within the Nigri section of the Aspergillus genus. The Aspergillus genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on decomposing matter, and suspended in the air. Species within this genus often grow quickly and can sporulate within a few days of germination. A combination of characteristics unique to A. niger makes the microbe invaluable to the production of many acids, proteins and bioactive compounds. Characteristics including extensive metabolic diversity, high production yield, secretion capability, and the ability to conduct post-translational modifications are responsible for A. niger's robust production of secondary metabolites. A. niger's capability to withstand extremely acidic conditions makes it especially important to the industrial production of citric acid.

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which people develop symptoms of illness or become infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside. In scientific literature, SBS is also known as building-related illness (BRI), building-related symptoms (BRS), or idiopathic environmental intolerance (IEI).

A mycotoxin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by fungi and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.

<i>Aspergillus flavus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus flavus is a saprotrophic and pathogenic fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is best known for its colonization of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or transit. Its specific name flavus derives from the Latin meaning yellow, a reference to the frequently observed colour of the spores. A. flavus infections can occur while hosts are still in the field (preharvest), but often show no symptoms (dormancy) until postharvest storage or transport.

<i>Aspergillus</i> Genus of fungi

Aspergillus is a genus consisting of several hundred mold species found in various climates worldwide.

<i>Stachybotrys chartarum</i> Species of fungus

Stachybotrys chartarum (, stak-ee-BO-tris char-TARE-əm, also known as black mold is a species of microfungus that produces its conidia in slime heads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trichothecene</span> Large family of chemically related mycotoxins

The trichothecenes are a large family of chemically related mycotoxins. They are produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium,Trichoderma, Podostroma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. Chemically, trichothecenes are a class of sesquiterpenes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis</span> Medical condition

Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a condition characterised by an exaggerated response of the immune system to the fungus Aspergillus. It occurs most often in people with asthma or cystic fibrosis. Aspergillus spores are ubiquitous in soil and are commonly found in the sputum of healthy individuals. A. fumigatus is responsible for a spectrum of lung diseases known as aspergilloses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aspergillosis</span> Medical condition

Aspergillosis is a fungal infection of usually the lungs, caused by the genus Aspergillus, a common mould that is breathed in frequently from the air, but does not usually affect most people. It generally occurs in people with lung diseases such as asthma, cystic fibrosis or tuberculosis, or those who are immunocompromised such as those who have had a stem cell or organ transplant or those who take medications such as steroids and some cancer treatments which suppress the immune system. Rarely, it can affect skin.

The use of podiatry drills, in the absence of engineering controls and personal protective equipment, is an occupational hazard to the healthcare provider. Nail dust collected during foot care procedures performed in office settings has been found to contain keratin, keratin hydrolysates, microbial debris, and viable fungal elements, including dermatophytes and saprotrophs. Exposure to nail dust and the associated risk will vary with the policies and practices in place, the type of podiatry drill used, therapy technique, frequency of procedures, personal protective equipment utilized and the use of ventilation systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoor mold</span> Fungal growth that develops on wet materials

Indoor mold or indoor mould, also sometimes referred to as mildew, is a fungal growth that develops on wet materials in interior spaces. Mold is a natural part of the environment and plays an important part in nature by breaking down dead organic matter such as fallen leaves and dead trees; indoors, mold growth should be avoided. Mold reproduces by means of tiny spores. The spores are like seeds, but invisible to the naked eye, that float through the air and deposit on surfaces. When the temperature, moisture, and available nutrient conditions are correct, the spores can form into new mold colonies where they are deposited. There are many types of mold, but all require moisture and a food source for growth.

Pathogenic fungi are fungi that cause disease in humans or other organisms. Although fungi are eukaryotic, many pathogenic fungi are microorganisms. Approximately 300 fungi are known to be pathogenic to humans; their study is called "medical mycology". Fungal infections are estimated to kill more people than either tuberculosis or malaria—about two million people per year.

Aspergillus ochraceus is a mold species in the genus Aspergillus known to produce the toxin ochratoxin A, one of the most abundant food-contaminating mycotoxins, and citrinin. It also produces the dihydroisocoumarin mellein. It is a filamentous fungus in nature and has characteristic biseriate conidiophores. Traditionally a soil fungus, has now began to adapt to varied ecological niches, like agricultural commodities, farmed animal and marine species. In humans and animals the consumption of this fungus produces chronic neurotoxic, immunosuppressive, genotoxic, carcinogenic and teratogenic effects. Its airborne spores are one of the potential causes of asthma in children and lung diseases in humans. The pig and chicken populations in the farms are the most affected by this fungus and its mycotoxins. Certain fungicides like mancozeb, copper oxychloride, and sulfur have inhibitory effects on the growth of this fungus and its mycotoxin producing capacities.

<i>Wallemia sebi</i> Species of fungus

Wallemia sebi is a xerophilic fungus of the phylum Basidiomycota.

Aspergillus penicillioides is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus, and is among the most xerophilic fungi.

<i>Aspergillus versicolor</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus versicolor is a slow-growing species of filamentous fungus commonly found in damp indoor environments and on food products. It has a characteristic musty odor associated with moldy homes and is a major producer of the hepatotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin sterigmatocystin. Like other Aspergillus species, A. versicolor is an eye, nose, and throat irritant.

<i>Chaetomium globosum</i> Species of fungus

Chaetomium globosum is a well-known mesophilic member of the mold family Chaetomiaceae. It is a saprophytic fungus that primarily resides on plants, soil, straw, and dung. Endophytic C. globosum assists in cellulose decomposition of plant cells. They are found in habitats ranging from forest plants to mountain soils across various biomes. C. globosum colonies can also be found indoors and on wooden products.

References

  1. ↑ Kathy Orton (October 25, 2013) Mold: What every homeowner fears but probably shouldn’t, The Washington Post, accessed 16 April 2019
  2. ↑ Weinhold B (June 2007). "A spreading concern: inhalational health effects of mold". Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (6): A300–05. doi:10.1289/ehp.115-a300. PMC   1892134 . PMID   17589582.
  3. ↑ Indoor Environmental Quality: Dampness and Mold in Buildings. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. August 1, 2008.
  4. ↑ Bush RK, Portnoy JM, Saxon A, Terr AI, Wood RA (February 2006). "The medical effects of mold exposure". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 117 (2): 326–33. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.12.001. PMID   16514772.
  5. ↑ Stöppler MG (July 16, 2014). "Mold Exposure". medicinenet.com. Retrieved February 1, 2015.
  6. 1 2 Mudarri D, Fisk WJ (June 2007). "Public health and economic impact of dampness and mold". Indoor Air. 17 (3): 226–235. Bibcode:2007InAir..17..226M. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00474.x. PMID   17542835. S2CID   21709547.
  7. ↑ Heseltine E, Rosen J, eds. (2009). WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: dampness and mould (PDF). World Health Organization. p. 93. ISBN   978-92-890-4168-3 . Retrieved February 1, 2015.
  8. ↑ Minnesota Department of Health. "Mold and Moisture in Homes". Minnesota North Star. Archived from the original on April 15, 2014. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
  9. ↑ Krieger J, Jacobs DE, Ashley PJ, Baeder A, Chew GL, Dearborn D, Hynes HP, Miller JD, Morley R, Rabito F, Zeldin DC (2010). "Housing interventions and control of asthma-related indoor biologic agents: a review of the evidence". Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 16 (5 Suppl): S11–20. doi:10.1097/PHH.0b013e3181ddcbd9. PMC   3934496 . PMID   20689369.
  10. ↑ Clark SN, Lam HC, Goode EJ, Marczylo EL, Exley KS, Dimitroulopoulou S (2023-08-02). "The Burden of Respiratory Disease from Formaldehyde, Damp and Mould in English Housing". Environments. 10 (8): 136. doi: 10.3390/environments10080136 . ISSN   2076-3298.
  11. 1 2 Park J, Cox-Ganser JM (2011). "Meta-Mold exposure and respiratory health in damp indoor environments". Frontiers in Bioscience . 3 (2): 757–771. doi: 10.2741/e284 . PMID   21196349.
  12. ↑ Gent JF, Ren P, Belanger K, Triche E, Bracken MB, Holford TR, Leaderer BP (December 2002). "Levels of household mold associated with respiratory symptoms in the first year of life in a cohort at risk for asthma". Environmental Health Perspectives. 110 (12): A781–86. doi:10.1289/ehp.021100781. PMC   1241132 . PMID   12460818.
  13. ↑ "Black mold exposure: Symptoms, treatment, and prevention". www.medicalnewstoday.com. 2019-09-18. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
  14. ↑ Cohen A. "WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Rabito FA, Iqbal S, Kiernan MP, Holt E, Chew GL (March 2008). "Children's respiratory health and mold levels in New Orleans after Katrina: a preliminary look". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 121 (3): 622–25. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2007.11.022 . PMID   18179814.
  16. ↑ Rath B, Donato J, Duggan A, Perrin K, Bronfin DR, Ratard R, VanDyke R, Magnus M (May 2007). "Adverse health outcomes after Hurricane Katrina among children and adolescents with chronic conditions". Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 18 (2): 405–17. doi:10.1353/hpu.2007.0043. PMID   17483568. S2CID   31302249.
  17. ↑ Moisture Control Guidance for Building Design, Construction and Maintenance. December 2013.
  18. 1 2 Mendell MJ, Mirer AG, Cheung K, Tong M, Douwes J (June 2011). "Respiratory and allergic health effects of dampness, mold, and dampness-related agents: a review of the epidemiologic evidence". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6): 748–56. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002410. PMC   3114807 . PMID   21269928.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 Barbeau DN, Grimsley LF, White LE, El-Dahr JM, Lichtveld M (2010-03-01). "Mold exposure and health effects following hurricanes Katrina and Rita". Annual Review of Public Health. 31 (1): 165–78 1 p following 178. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103643 . PMID   20070193.
  20. 1 2 Davis P (2001). Molds, Toxic Molds, and Indoor Air Quality. California State Library. ISBN   978-1-58703-133-5.
  21. ↑ Chang C, Gershwin ME (2019). "The Myth of Mycotoxins and Mold Injury". Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology . 57 (3): 449–455. doi:10.1007/s12016-019-08767-4. ISSN   1559-0267. PMID   31608429.
  22. ↑ Mendell MJ, Mirer AG, Cheung K, Douwes J, Sigsgaard T, Bønløkke J, Meyer HW, Hirvonen MR, Roponen M (2009), "Health effects associated with dampness and mould", WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould, World Health Organization, retrieved 2024-06-28
  23. ↑ Iossifova YY, Reponen T, Ryan PH, Levin L, Bernstein DI, Lockey JE, Hershey GK, Villareal M, LeMasters G (February 2009). "Mold exposure during infancy as a predictor of potential asthma development". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 102 (2): 131–7. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)60243-8. PMID   19230464.
  24. ↑ Thacher JD, Gruzieva O, Pershagen G, Melén E, Lorentzen JC, Kull I, Bergström A (June 2017). "Mold and dampness exposure and allergic outcomes from birth to adolescence: data from the BAMSE cohort". Allergy. 72 (6): 967–974. doi:10.1111/all.13102. PMC   5434946 . PMID   27925656.
  25. ↑ Mendell MJ, Mirer AG, Cheung K, Tong M, Douwes J (June 2011). "Respiratory and allergic health effects of dampness, mold, and dampness-related agents: a review of the epidemiologic evidence". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (6): 748–56. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002410. PMC   3114807 . PMID   21269928.
  26. ↑ Krieger J, Jacobs DE, Ashley PJ, Baeder A, Chew GL, Dearborn D, Hynes HP, Miller JD, Morley R, Rabito F, Zeldin DC (2010). "Housing interventions and control of asthma-related indoor biologic agents: a review of the evidence". Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 16 (5 Suppl): S11-20. doi:10.1097/PHH.0b013e3181ddcbd9. PMC   3934496 . PMID   20689369.
  27. ↑ Fisk WJ, Eliseeva EA, Mendell MJ (November 2010). "Association of residential dampness and mold with respiratory tract infections and bronchitis: a meta-analysis". Environmental Health. 9 (1): 72. Bibcode:2010EnvHe...9...72F. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-9-72 . PMC   3000394 . PMID   21078183.
  28. ↑ Müller FM, Seidler M (August 2010). "Characteristics of pathogenic fungi and antifungal therapy in cystic fibrosis". Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 8 (8): 957–64. doi:10.1586/eri.10.72. PMID   20695750. S2CID   21925548.
  29. ↑ Simčič S, Matos T, "Microbiological diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis." Zdravniški vestnik. 2010, Vol. 79, Issue 10, pp. 716–25.
  30. ↑ Erol S (April 2010). "[Nosocomial aspergillosis: epidemiology and control]". Mikrobiyoloji Bulteni (in Turkish). 44 (2): 323–38. PMID   20549969.
  31. ↑ Nucci M, Anaissie E (October 2007). "Fusarium infections in immunocompromised patients". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 20 (4): 695–704. doi:10.1128/CMR.00014-07. PMC   2176050 . PMID   17934079.
  32. ↑ Gaviria JM, van Burik JA, Dale DC, Root RK, Liles WC (April 1999). "Comparison of interferon-gamma, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor for priming leukocyte-mediated hyphal damage of opportunistic fungal pathogens". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179 (4): 1038–41. doi: 10.1086/314679 . PMID   10068606.
  33. ↑ McCormick A, Loeffler J, Ebel F (November 2010). "Aspergillus fumigatus: contours of an opportunistic human pathogen". Cellular Microbiology. 12 (11): 1535–43. doi: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01517.x . PMID   20716206. S2CID   7798878.
  34. ↑ Ben-Ami R, Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP (August 2010). "Enemy of the (immunosuppressed) state: an update on the pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus infection". British Journal of Haematology. 150 (4): 406–17. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2010.08283.x . PMID   20618330. S2CID   28216163.
  35. ↑ Shang ST, Lin JC, Ho SJ, Yang YS, Chang FY, Wang NC (June 2010). "The emerging life-threatening opportunistic fungal pathogen Kodamaea ohmeri: optimal treatment and literature review". Journal of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infection = Wei Mian Yu Gan Ran Za Zhi. 43 (3): 200–06. doi: 10.1016/S1684-1182(10)60032-1 . PMID   21291847.
  36. 1 2 Indian Health Service: Bemidji Area Office of Environmental Health and Engineering Environmental Health Services Section "Guideline on the Assessment and Remediation of Fungi in Indoor Environments"
  37. ↑ "What Is Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis?". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. October 1, 2010. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
  38. ↑ Hardin BD, Kelman BJ, Saxon A (May 2003). "Adverse human health effects associated with molds in the indoor environment" (PDF). Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 45 (5): 470–78. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.161.3936 . doi:10.1097/00043764-200305000-00006. PMID   12762072. S2CID   6027519. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-01. Retrieved 2017-10-26.
  39. ↑ Reverberi M, Ricelli A, Zjalic S, Fabbri AA, Fanelli C (July 2010). "Natural functions of mycotoxins and control of their biosynthesis in fungi". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 87 (3): 899–911. doi:10.1007/s00253-010-2657-5. hdl:11573/230032. PMID   20495914. S2CID   176363.
  40. ↑ Bohnert M, Wackler B, Hoffmeister D (June 2010). "Spotlights on advances in mycotoxin research". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 87 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1007/s00253-010-2565-8. PMID   20376632. S2CID   10017676.
  41. ↑ Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 633–38. ISBN   978-0-8385-8529-0.
  42. ↑ Etzel RA, Montaña E, Sorenson WG, Kullman GJ, Allan TM, Dearborn DG, Olson DR, Jarvis BB, Miller JD (August 1998). "Acute pulmonary hemorrhage in infants associated with exposure to Stachybotrys atra and other fungi". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 152 (8): 757–62. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.152.8.757 . PMID   9701134.
  43. ↑ Bennett JW, Klich M (July 2003). "Mycotoxins". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 16 (3): 497–516. doi:10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003. PMC   164220 . PMID   12857779.
  44. ↑ "Mold – General Information – Basic Facts". www.cdc.gov. 2019-10-28. Retrieved 2019-11-19.
  45. ↑ "Mycotoxins". www.who.int. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
  46. ↑ "Agriculture". Province of Manitoba. Retrieved 2019-11-19.
  47. ↑ "Mycotoxins". www.who.int. Retrieved 2019-11-19.
  48. 1 2 3 "Molds On Food: Are They Dangerous?". United States Food Safety and Inspection Service. 22 August 2013.
  49. ↑ Dedesko S, Siegel JA (December 2015). "Moisture parameters and fungal communities associated with gypsum drywall in buildings". Microbiome. 3 (1): 71. doi: 10.1186/s40168-015-0137-y . PMC   4672539 . PMID   26642923.
  50. ↑ Andersen B, Dosen I, Lewinska AM, Nielsen KF (January 2017). "Pre-contamination of new gypsum wallboard with potentially harmful fungal species". Indoor Air. 27 (1): 6–12. Bibcode:2017InAir..27....6A. doi: 10.1111/ina.12298 . PMID   26970063. S2CID   6656218.
  51. ↑ Gravesen S, Nielsen PA, Iversen R, Nielsen KF (June 1999). "Microfungal contamination of damp buildings--examples of risk constructions and risk materials". Environmental Health Perspectives. 107 (Suppl 3): 505–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.99107s3505. PMC   1566214 . PMID   10347000.
  52. ↑ Thrasher JD, Crawley S (2009-09-30). "The biocontaminants and complexity of damp indoor spaces: more than what meets the eyes". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 25 (9–10): 583–615. Bibcode:2009ToxIH..25..583T. doi:10.1177/0748233709348386. PMID   19793773. S2CID   24335115.
  53. ↑ Barbeau DN, Grimsley LF, White LE, El-Dahr JM, Lichtveld M (2010). "Mold exposure and health effects following hurricanes Katrina and Rita". Annual Review of Public Health. 31: 165–78 1 p following 178. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103643 . PMID   20070193.
  54. ↑ Kumar M, Verma RK (September 2010). "Fungi diversity, their effects on building materials, occupants and control – a brief review". Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 69 (9): 657–61. ISSN   0975-1084.
  55. ↑ Wilson SC, Holder WH, Easterwood KV, et al. (2004). "Identification, remediation, and monitoring processes used in a mold-contaminated high school". Adv. Appl. Microbiol. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 55. Academic Press: 409–23. doi:10.1016/S0065-2164(04)55016-5. ISBN   978-0-12-002657-9. PMID   15350804.
  56. 1 2 Samson RA, Hoekstra ES, Frisvad JC (2000). Introduction to food- and airborne fungi (6. rev. ed.). Utrecht, The Netherlands: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures. ISBN   978-90-70351-42-7.
  57. ↑ Kankolongo M, Hell K, Nawa I (June 2009). "Assessment for fungal, mycotoxin and insect spoilage in maize stored for human consumption in Zambia". J. Sci. Food Agric. 89 (8): 1366–75. Bibcode:2009JSFA...89.1366K. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3596.
  58. 1 2 3 Upadhaya S, Park M, Ha J (September 2010). "Mycotoxins and their biotransformation in the rumen: a review". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 23 (9): 1250–59. doi: 10.5713/ajas.2010.r.06 . Archived from the original on 2013-12-03.
  59. ↑ Reddy K, Salleh B, Saad B, Abbas H, Abel C, Shier W (2010). "An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health". Toxin Reviews . 29 (1): 3–26. doi:10.3109/15569541003598553. S2CID   84659808.
  60. ↑ He J, Zhou T (June 2010). "Patented techniques for detoxification of mycotoxins in feeds and food matrices". Recent Patents on Food, Nutrition & Agriculture. 2 (2): 96–104. doi:10.2174/1876142911002020096. PMID   20653554.
  61. ↑ Liu Y, Wu F (June 2010). "Global burden of aflatoxin-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: a risk assessment". Environmental Health Perspectives. 118 (6): 818–24. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901388. PMC   2898859 . PMID   20172840.
  62. ↑ Tanuma H, Hiramatsu M, Mukai H, Abe M, Kume H, Nishiyama S, Katsuoka K (2000). "Case report. A case of chromoblastomycosis is effectively treated with terbinafine. Characteristics of chromoblastomycosis in the Kitasato region, Japan". Mycoses. 43 (1–2): 79–83. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0507.2000.00548.x. PMID   10838854. S2CID   34336071.
  63. ↑ "Tainted Mengniu Milk Products Caused by Mildewed Feed, Regulator Says". Bloomberg. December 26, 2011.
  64. ↑ Boor BE, Spilak MP, Laverge J, Novoselac A, Xu Y (2017-11-15). "Human exposure to indoor air pollutants in sleep microenvironments: A literature review". Building and Environment. 125: 528–555. Bibcode:2017BuEnv.125..528B. doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.08.050 . ISSN   0360-1323.
  65. ↑ Woodcock AA, Steel N, Moore CB, Howard SJ, Custovic A, Denning DW (January 2006). "Fungal contamination of bedding". Allergy. 61 (1): 140–2. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2005.00941.x. PMID   16364170. S2CID   31146654.
  66. ↑ Siebers R, Parkes A, Crane J (July 2006). "Beta-(1,3)-glucan on pillows". Allergy. 61 (7): 901–2. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2006.01111.x. PMID   16792597. S2CID   43064735.
  67. ↑ Kanchongkittiphon W, Mendell MJ, Gaffin JM, Wang G, Phipatanakul W (January 2015). "Indoor environmental exposures and exacerbation of asthma: an update to the 2000 review by the Institute of Medicine". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (1): 6–20. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307922. PMC   4286274 . PMID   25303775.
  68. ↑ Choi O, Yu CP, Esteban Fernández G, Hu Z (December 2010). "Interactions of nanosilver with Escherichia coli cells in planktonic and biofilm cultures". Water Research. 44 (20): 6095–103. Bibcode:2010WatRe..44.6095C. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.06.069. PMID   20659752.
  69. ↑ Lok CN, Ho CM, Chen R, He QY, Yu WY, Sun H, Tam PK, Chiu JF, Che CM (April 2006). "Proteomic analysis of the mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles". Journal of Proteome Research. 5 (4): 916–24. doi:10.1021/pr0504079. PMID   16602699.
  70. ↑ Sotiriou GA, Pratsinis SE (July 2010). "Antibacterial activity of nanosilver ions and particles". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (14): 5649–54. Bibcode:2010EnST...44.5649S. doi:10.1021/es101072s. PMID   20583805.
  71. ↑ Wright JB, Lam K, Hansen D, Burrell RE (August 1999). "Efficacy of topical silver against fungal burn wound pathogens". American Journal of Infection Control. 27 (4): 344–50. doi:10.1016/S0196-6553(99)70055-6. PMID   10433674.
  72. ↑ Lara HH, Ayala-Nuñez NV, Ixtepan-Turrent L, Rodriguez-Padilla C (January 2010). "Mode of antiviral action of silver nanoparticles against HIV-1". Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 8 (1): 1. doi: 10.1186/1477-3155-8-1 . PMC   2818642 . PMID   20145735.
  73. ↑ Prasath S, Palaniappan K (October 2019). "Is using nanosilver mattresses/pillows safe? A review of potential health implications of silver nanoparticles on human health". Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 41 (5): 2295–2313. Bibcode:2019EnvGH..41.2295P. doi:10.1007/s10653-019-00240-7. PMID   30671691. S2CID   58947744.
  74. 1 2 3 Brandt M, Brown C, Burkhart J, Burton N, Cox-Ganser J, Damon S, Falk H, Fridkin S, Garbe P, McGeehin M, Morgan J, Page E, Rao C, Redd S, Sinks T, Trout D, Wallingford K, Warnock D, Weissman D (June 2006). "Mold prevention strategies and possible health effects in the aftermath of hurricanes and major floods". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 55 (RR-8): 1–27. JSTOR   24842334. PMID   16760892.
  75. ↑ Sakula A (April 1984). "Sir John Floyer's A Treatise of the Asthma (1698)". Thorax. 39 (4): 248–254. doi:10.1136/thx.39.4.248. PMC   459778 . PMID   6372153.
  76. ↑ Floyer J (1698). A Treatise of the Asthma (Divided into Four Parts). London, U.K. pp. 55–61.
  77. ↑ Miller JD, Rand TG, Jarvis BB (August 2003). "Stachybotrys chartarum: cause of human disease or media darling?". Medical Mycology. 41 (4): 271–91. doi: 10.1080/1369378031000137350 . PMID   12964721.
  78. ↑ Landrigan PJ, Etzel RA (2013). Textbook of Children's Environmental Health. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-933665-4.
  79. ↑ Brinkman M (December 20, 2005). "Diamond Pet Food Recalled Due to Aflatoxin". FDA.gov. Retrieved May 9, 2014.
  80. ↑ FDA, Center for Veterinary Medicine Communications Staff (December 30, 2005). "FDA Investigation of Diamond Pet Food Finds Some Product Exported". FDA.gov. Retrieved May 9, 2014.
  81. ↑ "Awaab Ishak death: the coroner's verdict in full". Inside Housing. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  82. ↑ Kearsley J (16 November 2022). "Awaab Ishak: Prevention of future deaths report". Prevention of Future Death Reports. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
  83. ↑ "Government to deliver Awaab's Law". GOV.UK (Press release). 9 February 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2023.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.