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The Montessori method was practiced in the United States early after its invention. While the name is not trademarked and there is no central authority for the method, the American Montessori Society (AMS) was established in 1960.
After 1907, Maria Montessori's work spread quickly all around the world, soon reaching the US, where many public figures—including Alexander Graham Bell and his wife Mabel, Thomas Edison, and Woodrow Wilson—appreciated her work. [1] [2] [3]
In 1914, Montessori spoke to a standing-room-only audience at Carnegie Hall, in New York City. By 1915, she had been invited to participate in the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal. There, she had set up a fully functioning classroom for display to the attending. [4]
This early American enthusiasm for Montessori was short-lived. William Heard Kilpatrick, an advocate of John Dewey's theories of education, gave a scathing critique in The Montessori System Examined (1914); Montessori schools had virtually disappeared from the US by 1920. [5] The Montessori-method school resurgence did not occur until after 1960, when Nancy McCormick Rambusch and Margaret Stephenson, who each had worked with Montessori in Europe, separately went to the US.
In 1960, Rambusch organized the American Montessori Society (AMS) to Americanize the Montessori method and to make it relevant to the popular culture of the day. [6] In 1958, the Whitby School was founded in Greenwich, Connecticut as the first AMS Montessori school in the US, followed in 1960 by the opening of the Sophia Montessori School opened by Screen actor, director, writer, Tom Laughlin with trained Montessorians Johannes and Joanna Laven, immigrants from Amsterdam. The school was later renamed Santa Monica Montessori School 2 In 1962 by the Caedmon School in New York City opened. Ernest Wood and Hilda Wood, who had worked with Maria Montessori in India, started the School of the Woods in 1962 as well, in Houston, Texas. The first Montessori school in the Southeast, Springmont, was founded in 1963 in Atlanta. Also in 1963, the Cambridge Montessori School was founded in the basement of St. Bartholomew Church in Cambridge, MA, enrolling 50 students. In 1961, Mario Montessori, head of the Association Montessori Internationale (AMI), sent Stephenson as his personal representative to the United States, and was later given his permission to established a branch office of the AMI in the United States in 1970. [7] The first Episcopal Montessori school in Florida, St. Christopher's By-the-Sea Episcopal Church and Montessori School, was founded in 1968 on Key Biscayne.
In 1967, a trademark dispute arose over the use of the term "Montessori" between AMS and AMI. This conflict was finally settled by the US Patent and Trademark Trial and Appeal Board in its action to refuse to grant exclusive use of the term "Montessori" to any one particular "Montessori" organization, holding that "the term 'Montessori' has a generic and/or descriptive significance." [8]
Disputes over what is a Montessori school have been a continuing aspect of the history of Montessori education, arising especially around the various competing philosophies and interests involved in representing the Montessori method. Despite these conflicts, there are currently more than 5,000 schools identified in some way with the Montessori method.
Because there is no single registry or even uniform definition as to what constitutes a Montessori school, there is some dispute as to the number of private Montessori schools in the United States. Estimates range from just under 4,000 to greater than 8,000. There are about 250 public and 120 charter schools that include Montessori programs (see below). Most private schools have a primary program (from 3–6 years) and often a lower elementary (6–9 years). Upper elementary programs (9–12 years) are less common, although about one school in eight will have this program. At this time Montessori junior highs and high schools are rare. However, the first public Montessori high school in the country, Clark Montessori located in Cincinnati, Ohio, was started in 1994. The most recent Montessori high school opened in Philadelphia - Quadrat Academy. Several pilot Montessori junior high schools have opened based on writings by Montessori on Erdkinder , German for "children of the land", which was a term Montessori coined for children ages 12 through 18. The last few years have seen the advent of infant and toddler Montessori programs. Many schools offer "mother and child" programs in which parents can learn about Montessori and how to apply the philosophy to their child-rearing practices. In many other schools, the demand for high-quality childcare has spurred the growth of Montessori infant, or "nido" (the Italian word for "nest") and toddler, or "infant community" programs.
The Montessori community does not have any central authority. AMI (Association Montessori Internationale) is the body that Maria Montessori founded in 1929, and of which she remained founder president until her death in 1952. Her son Mario Montessori was general director of AMI until his death in 1982. AMI endeavours to safeguard the teaching traditions passed down from Maria Montessori to current teachers (otherwise known as a "guide" or "director/directress") through the use of rigorously trained trainers. Although the American Montessori Society (AMS), located in New York City, is by far the largest Montessori organization in the United States, it affiliates only about 25 percent of the schools that call themselves “Montessori.” Many other schools across the country are affiliated with other Montessori organizations or with no organization at all.
Accreditation and quality standards for Montessori teacher education are provided through the Montessori Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (MACTE) located in Charlottesville, Virginia. MACTE is the only national education accreditor recognized by the US Department of Education to accredit Montessori teacher education programs within colleges and universities, free standing institutions and distance education with 120 hours of residency. (MACTE does not accredit on-line programs that don't require a 120-hour residency and a practicum) Non-MACTE accredited programs cannot be considered diploma programs or trade schools, and holders of certifications from those training centers are not eligible to teach in most Montessori schools (other than those accredited by the training centers themselves). For Montessori schools, various organizations provide quality standards through affiliation, recognition, or membership according to their own particular philosophy, procedures and requirements. (see www.macte.org)
In the 1960s, a growing homeschool movement arose in the United States, due to parental concern about the quality and nature of the government system of free public schools. By 2003, the number of homeschooling children in the United States rose to over 1 million, an increase of some 29% from 1999. [9] In this growing context, parents have been seeking to use the Montessori Method as well. For example, Elizabeth Hainstock, a homeschooling mother in the United States, used the Montessori method with her own children in the 1960s, and wrote about her experiences and knowledge on the subject in several books to guide other parents interested in using the Montessori method at home. [10] No reliable figure exists of the number of homeschoolers using materials or methods borrowed from Montessori.
Public school districts in the U.S. began experimenting with Montessori classrooms in the mid 1970s in Arlington, Virginia; Philadelphia; Reading, Ohio; and San Mateo, California. [11] By the mid-1980s there were about 50 sites. With funding support from federal magnet grants and desegregation efforts, that number surpassed 200 by the beginning of the 21st century.
A survey conducted in 1981 collected data from 25 of the approximately 57 school districts nationwide known to have Montessori programs at the time of this study. [12] Another study of public Montessori programs from 1990–91 received responses from 63 of the 120 school districts or schools to whom surveys were sent. [13] As of July 2013, the Census Project of the National Center for Montessori in the Public Sector reported 443 public Montessori schools in the United States and Puerto Rico. [14]
Results from the 1991 study [13] indicated that the number of students in the schools or school districts averaged 233, with an average of 10 teachers per program. A total of 32, or 58%, of the schools surveyed reported that they were magnet schools. A total of 69% of the Montessori programs shared a building with other programs. District funding for the training of Montessori teachers was provided in 66% of the districts. Only 42% of the programs provided the three-year age span of three-, four-, and five-year-olds. This indicates that the degree to which particular districts implement the Montessori model varies. A total of 16 of the 57 schools charged tuition for some part of the program. About two thirds of the programs provided free transportation. In addition, two thirds of the districts reported that additional staff were used in the Montessori magnet schools. These factors can add to the overall costs of the program.
A survey in 2004 by Heather Bilton for her dissertation found that in public Montessori schools: • About half the students receive free or reduced price lunch • Most principals do not have Montessori training • A bit more than half of the teachers have Montessori credentials • Most have chosen to use materials that are not "Montessori" [15]
In January 2007, The Washington Post published an article titled "Montessori, Now 100, Goes Mainstream". [16] The article discussed the increasing number of Montessori public school programs, particularly in African-American communities.
The article goes on to discuss how Montessori has been implemented in the public schools, and has become an attractive option to black, middle-class parents because it provides an alternative to the "No Child Left Behind" strategies in most current public school curricula.
Progressive education, or educational progressivism, is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement. The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by social class. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:
Homeschooling or home schooling, also known as home education or elective home education (EHE), is the education of school-aged children at home or a variety of places other than a school. Usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or an online teacher, many homeschool families use less formal, more personalized and individualized methods of learning that are not always found in schools. The actual practice of homeschooling can vary. The spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms such as unschooling, which is a lesson- and curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling. Some families who initially attended a school go through a deschool phase to break away from school habits and prepare for homeschooling. While "homeschooling" is the term commonly used in North America, "home education" is primarily used in Europe and many Commonwealth countries. Homeschooling should not be confused with distance education, which generally refers to the arrangement where the student is educated by and conforms to the requirements of an online school, rather than being educated independently and unrestrictedly by their parents or by themselves.
The Montessori method of education involves children's natural interests and activities rather than formal teaching methods. A Montessori classroom places an emphasis on hands-on learning and developing real-world skills. It emphasizes independence and it views children as naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating learning in a sufficiently supportive and well-prepared learning environment. It discourages some conventional measures of achievement, such as grades and tests.
Alternative education encompasses many pedagogical approaches differing from mainstream pedagogy. Such alternative learning environments may be found within state, charter, and independent schools as well as home-based learning environments. Many educational alternatives emphasize small class sizes, close relationships between students and teachers and a sense of community.
Chaminade University of Honolulu is a private Marianist university in Honolulu, Hawaii. Founded in 1955 by the Society of Mary, Chaminade is located in Kaimuki, Honolulu at the base of St. Louis Heights. Chaminade offers bachelor's degrees in 23 fields of study and 5 master's degree programs. Chaminade University is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission.
The Village School an independent coeducational day school, serving students ages 18 months to 14 years, located in the Borough of Waldwick, in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. The Village School is a Montessori school for children ranging from toddler to Middle School. Its programs are based in the fundamental philosophy of Dr. Maria Montessori. It is the one of the only Montessori schools in New Jersey to serve students ranging up to fifteen years of age.
Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori was an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an early age, Montessori enrolled in classes at an all-boys technical school, with hopes of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change of heart and began medical school at the Sapienza University of Rome, becoming one of the first women to attend medical school in Italy; she graduated with honors in 1896. Her educational method is in use today in many public and private schools globally.
School of the Woods is an independent primary and secondary school located at Hilshire Village, Texas, United States in Greater Houston, with a portion of the school property in Spring Branch, Houston. It offers educational programs from Early Childhood through 12th grade in a Montessori environment. It is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS), and the Texas Alliance of Accredited Private Schools (TAAPS). The school holds a full level membership in the American Montessori Society (AMS).
Parkmont School is a private school, located at 4842 16th St NW in Washington, DC., that serves grades 6-12. Parkmont was founded in 1972, by a parent group in McLean, Virginia, as a cooperative middle school. Parkmont was designed for parents looking for alternative education for their child. The school uses more of a hands-on, individual, and dynamic approach than more traditional schools. Parkmont is non-sectarian and an Association of Independent Maryland and DC Schools accredited school.
The American Montessori Society (AMS) is a New York City-based, member-supported nonprofit organization which promotes the use of the Montessori teaching approach in private and public schools.
Wilmington Montessori School is a Montessori school located in New Castle County, Delaware, United States, serving ages 12 months through eighth grade. Its campus is partially in Ardencroft and partially in an unincorporated area. It is named after, but is not located in, Wilmington.
Whitby School is an independent, co-educational private school in Greenwich, Connecticut, that was founded in 1958 and is accredited by the American Montessori Society, the International Baccalaureate Organization and the Connecticut Association of Independent Schools. The Head of School is Dr. John "Jack" Creeden, who joined Whitby in July 2019.
Etonkids International Educational Group is an early education and K-12 services provider in the People's Republic of China.
The Association Montessori International/USA (AMI/USA) is a national non-profit organization that strives to propagate and further the teachings and work of Dr. Maria Montessori in the United States. As an affiliate of the Association Montessori Internationale, the Association Montessori International/USA oversees recognition of eligible Montessori schools, supports AMI Montessori teacher training centers, and organizes professional development opportunities in the United States. The organization also maintains a member database of about 17,000 teachers, school administrators, parents, and interested individuals.
The Caedmon School is an independent, coeducational preschool and elementary school located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. The school, which employs an "inspired" Montessori curriculum, was the first Montessori school established in New York City and the second in the United States.
Margaret Naumburg was an American psychologist, educator, artist, author and among the first major theoreticians of art therapy. She named her approach dynamically oriented art therapy. Prior to working in art therapy, she founded the Walden School of New York City.
The John M. Tobin Montessori School is a public Montessori school in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In February 2015 it was named the first district-level, fully accredited, public Montessori school in the United States. This is significant because the administration, faculty and staff spent years rewriting much of the curriculum to comply with the rigorous Massachusetts state requirements while creating the distinct, hands-on, multi-sensorial learning environment required by the American Montessori Society. The mascot is the tiger and the school colors are royal blue and white.
Alcuin School is an independent, non-sectarian, co-educational day school in Dallas, Texas. With Montessori and International Baccalaureate programs, it serves students from 18-months-old through the 12th grade. Alcuin is accredited by the Independent Schools Association of the Southwest, recognized by the Association Montessori Internationale, and is an IB World School.
Association Montessori Internationale known as AMI is an Amsterdam-based global non-governmental organization dedicated to Montessori education.
Nancy McCormick Rambusch was an American educator who founded the American Montessori Society in 1960. The founder of the Whitby School, Rambusch served as a leading proponent of Montessori education in the United States, writing and lecturing widely.
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