| Myrmecopterula | |
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| Myrmecopterula moniliformis with infertile bead like fruiting bodies | |
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| Genus: | Myrmecopterula Leal-Dutra, Dentinger & G.W. Griff. (2020) |
| Type species | |
| Myrmecopterula moniliformis (Henn.) Leal-Dutra, Dentinger & G.W. Griff. (2020) | |
Myrmecopterula is a genus of fungi in the family Pterulaceae. Basidiocarps are clavarioid and are associated with ant domestication by members of the genus Apterostigma .
Myrmecopterula was created in 2020 when the Pterulaceae was reclassified based on phylogenetic analysis and split into Pterula , Myrmecopterula, Pterulicium . and Phaeopterula . Myrmecopterula is described as differing from Pterula in the presence of a cotton-like subiculum. [1] In the context of mycology the subiculum is defined as a net, cottony or crust like growth of mycelium from which hyphae or fruiting bodies are produced. [2]
The type species, M. moniliformis was originally classified as Lachnocladium moniliforme by the German mycologist Paul Christoph Hennings in 1904. It was classified as Thelephora clavarioides by the Portuguese mycologist Camille Torrend in 1914. It was reclassified as Pterula moniliformis by the English mycologist Edred John Henry Corner in 1952. [3]
M. nudihortorum and M. velohortorum were originally classified as Pterula species by the American mycologist Bryn Tjader Mason Dentinger in 2014. [4] [5] [6]
These species were ultimately all reclassified as Myrmecopterula by the mycologists Caio A. Leal-Dutra, Bryn Tjader Mason Dentinger and Gareth W. Griffith in 2020. [1] [7]
Prior to being formally classified, Myrmecopterula velohortorum was referred to as ant cultivar G2 in several studies. It was found in ant nests belonging to the Apterostigmadentigerum subclade [1] and was cultivated in hanging 'veiled gardens' where the mycelium formed a thin envelope which surrounded the fungal garden. Gardens are hung under logs or inside cavities within them or rarely found in cavities in the ground. A single hole may exist in the veil serving as the entrance to the nest. It is hypothesized that M. velohortorum descended from M. nudihortorum with the two species then taking different evolutionary paths due to co-evolving with ants engaged in varying behaviors. Such as the weaving of mycelial threads to produce the veil which the ants are hypothesized to engage in. [8]
Myrmecopterula nudihortorum was previously referred to as ant cultivar G4 and was found in ant nests belonging to the Apterostigma manni subclade. [1] It is not cultivated in veiled hanging gardens and rather is cultivated in spongelike masses on the bottom of the garden cavity either under logs or in cavities excavated in the ground. The garden is not suspended by a woven veil. This nest building behaviour is more similar to that of lower attine ants which engage in cultivation of Lepiotaceous fungi belonging to the G3 group. Only one species of Apterostigma, Apterostigma auriculatum was documented as cultivating the G3 fungus. [8] [9]
As the 'myrme' prefix in the name Myrmecopterula would suggest, these species are associated with fungus farming ants found in the neotropics of South America. Myrmex means ants in Greek [10] and Myrmecology is the study of ants.
The most common fungus known to be cultivated by leafcutter ants is Leucoagaricus gongylophorus (G1) with little documentation existing about other cultivated species. L. gongylophorus is cultivated by Atta and Acromyrmex ants, amongst others. Myrmecopterula fungi however are cultivated by Apterostigma ants. [11] Unlike L. gongylophorus, which is no longer capable of spreading via spores, some Myrmecopterula species may produce sterile or fertile fruiting bodies and may therefore not be as entirely reliant upon the ants. [11]
M. moniliformis produces two distinct forms of mushrooms. The first type resemble irregular strings of beads similar in appearance to some rhizomes produced by plants. These are sterile and lack an active hymenium to produce spores. The second type are fertile branching coral structures which may grow independently or attached to the sterile bead like structures. These coral like forms are more typical of mushrooms produced by other species in the Pterulaceae family. [11] The presence of fertile mushrooms means that M. moniliformis is capable of reproducing and surviving without the ants.
M. nudihortorum and M. velohortorum have not been documented as producing fertile fruiting bodies. One explanation may be that mushroom production is actively suppressed by the ants as is seen in L. gongylophorus which only produces mushrooms when nests are abandoned [12] however active suppression has not been documented in Myrmecopterula species. [11] This may indicate that M. nudihortorum and M. velohortorum have been rendered incapable of producing fertile bodies as a result of prolonged domestication by ants.
One hypothesis for the presence of fertile fruiting bodies in M. moniliformis is that it may have descended from a lineage of ant-domesticated fungi which escaped from cultivation to become free-living fungi. It is still observed as growing on ant nests. The presence of the sterile mushrooms may be a genetic hangover from previous cultivation as this mutation is detrimental to non-domesticated fungi.
Myrmecopterula species are found in the neotropics of South America and are associated with ants of the Apterostigma genus. Species are usually found growing on top of living or dead ant nests or being cultivated by ants.
Some species of Myrmecopterula grow from soil whilst others appear to grow from wood however closer inspection reveals that rather than using the wood itself as a substrate they are instead found growing from loose debris within cavities in the wood. This substrate is sometimes similar in appearance to that of the fungal gardens of Apterostigma pilosum group ants, which have been documented cultivating Myrmecopterula species. [1] [8]
Apterostigma species have a distribution which covers South America with some species extending into Central America and Mexico [13] this helps to understand the potential distribution of Myrmecopterula species. Due to some species of this genus being reliant upon ants and not producing mushrooms, observations are uncommon and would depend on observing the nests themselves. However as M. moniliformis produces both fertile and infertile mushrooms and can grow without the ants, observations of fruiting bodies can be made which place the distribution around Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica and Bolivia. [14] [15] This may help inform the potential distribution of other Myrmecopterula species.
Myrmecopterula derives its name from the Greek Myrmex for ants [10] and Pterula, the genus it formally belonged to.
At present three Myrmecopterula species have been named. [16] These are also associated with cultivation by Apterostigma ants. Four other, unnamed and less well documented species are known. [1]
The ant–fungus mutualism is a symbiosis seen between certain ant and fungal species, in which ants actively cultivate fungus much like humans farm crops as a food source. There is only evidence of two instances in which this form of agriculture evolved in ants resulting in a dependence on fungi for food. These instances were the attine ants and some ants that are part of the Megalomyrmex genus. In some species, the ants and fungi are dependent on each other for survival. This type of codependency is prevalent among herbivores who rely on plant material for nutrition. The fungus’ ability to convert the plant material into a food source accessible to their host makes them the ideal partner. The leafcutter ant is a well-known example of this symbiosis. Leafcutter ants species can be found in southern South America up to the United States. However, ants are not the only ground-dwelling arthropods which have developed symbioses with fungi. A mutualism with fungi is also noted in some species of termites in Africa.
The Pterulaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contained 99 species previously distributed among 12 genera. More recent data from molecular phylogenetic reconstruction showed that members of the genus Parapterulicium are unrelated to Pterulaceae and also polyphyletic. A new genus Baltazaria was created and both genera were moved to Russulales, to families Lachnocladiaceae and Peniophoraceae respectively.
Aphanobasidium is a genus of corticioid or crust fungi in the Radulomycetaceae family. The genus has a widespread distribution and contains several species. This genus was formally considered to be part of the Pterulaceae family.
Parapterulicium is a genus of fungi in the order Russulales. The genus contains two species found in Brazil and Argentina.
Pterula is a genus of fungi in the Pterulaceae family. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in tropical regions, and contains about 50 species. One such species, Pterula sp. 82168, has yielded potential antifungal antibiotic properties.
Pterulicium is a genus of fungi in the Pterulaceae family. The genus was previously monotypic, containing the single species Pterulicium xylogenum, found in southeast Asia. However in 2020 a major reclassification of the Pterulaceae family occurred based on phylogenetic analysis and the Pterula genus was split into Pterula, Myrmecopterula, Pterulicium and Phaeopterula by the mycologists Caio A. Leal-Dutra, Bryn Tjader Mason Dentinger and Gareth W. Griffith.
Radulomyces is a genus of crust fungi in the family Radulomycetaceae. The genus has a widespread distribution and contains 11 species. It was circumscribed by Danish botanist Mads Peter Christiansen in 1960, with Radulomyces confluens as the type species. This genus was formally considered to be part of the Pterulaceae family.
Phlegmacium cruentipellis is a rare species of agaric fungus in the family Cortinariaceae.
Phlegmacium subfraudulosum is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Cortinariaceae. It was previously known as Cortinarius subfraudulosus.
Phlegmacium boreidionysae is a species of fungus in the family Cortinariaceae.
Phlegmacium cremeiamarescens is a species of fungus in the family Cortinariaceae.
Leucoagaricus gongylophorus is a fungus in the family Agaricaceae which is cultivated by certain leafcutter ants. Like other species of fungi cultivated by ants, L. gongylophorus produces gongylidia, nutrient-rich hyphal swellings upon which the ants feed. Production of mushrooms occurs only once ants abandon the nest. L. gongylophorus is farmed by leaf cutter ant species belonging to the genera Atta and Acromyrmex, amongst others.
Myrmecopterula moniliformis is a species of fungus in the family Pterulaceae and is the type species of the genus Myrmecopterula. It is associated with fungi cultivating ants of the genus Apterostigma.
Myrmecopterula velohortorum is a species of fungus in the family Pterulaceae. It is associated with fungi cultivating ants of the genus Apterostigma.
Myrmecopterula nudihortorum is a species of fungus in the family Pterulaceae. It is associated with fungi cultivating ants of the genus Apterostigma.
The Radulomycetaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales.
Phaeopterula is a genus of fungi in the family Pterulaceae. Basidiocarps are clavarioid and resemble species of Pterula.
Radulotubus is a monotypic genus of corticioid or crust fungi in the family Radulomycetaceae containing the single resupinate species Radulotubus resupinatus. This species was found in Yunnan province, China and formally classified in 2016. The specimen was found growing on the fallen trunk of an angiosperm. It was originally placed in the family Pterulaceae and noted to be closesly related with Aphanobasidium and Radulomyces.
Pterulicium caricis-pendulae is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Pterulaceae. It has the common name pendulous sedge club.
Pterulicium gracile is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Pterulaceae.