The United Kingdom conducted 12 major nuclear weapons tests in Australia between 1952 and 1957. These explosions occurred at the Montebello Islands, Emu Field and Maralinga. [1]
The United Kingdom conducted 12 major nuclear weapons tests in Australia between 1952 and 1957. These explosions occurred at the Montebello Islands, Emu Field and Maralinga. [1]
The British conducted testing in the Pacific Ocean at Malden Island and Kiritimati known at the time as Christmas Island (not to be confused with Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean) between 1957 and 1958. [2] These were airbursts mostly occurring over water or suspended a few hundred metres above the ground by balloon. [2]
In Australia there were three sites. Testing was carried out between 1952 and 1957 and was mostly done at the surface. [2] A few hundred smaller scale tests were conducted at both Emu Field and Maralinga between 1953 and 1963. [3]
Two separate atomic test projects occurred at the islands, the first being Operation Hurricane and the second being Operation Mosaic. Following the second Mosaic explosion, the radioactive cloud that was supposed to be taken away from the site, was sent back by wind that was not anticipated by the British scientists. [4]
| Name | Date [5] | Yield [5] | Type | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Operation Hurricane/Mosaic | ||||
| Hurricane | 3 October 1952 11:15 | 25 kt | In the hull of HMS Plym | |
| Mosaic One | 16 May 1956 11:15 | 15 kt | Tower | |
| Mosaic Two | 19 June 1956 10:14 | 60 kt | Tower | |
The atomic tests at Emu Field in 1953 were known as Operation Totem. The test site of Emu Field was abandoned just hours after the second and final test, Totem 2.
| Name | Date [5] | Yield [5] | Type | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Operation Totem | ||||
| Totem One | 15 Oct 1953 07:00 | 10 kt | Tower | |
| Totem Two | 27 Oct 1953 07:00 | 8 kt | Tower | |
A testing site at Maralinga was established in 1955, close to a siding along the Trans-Australian Railway. Because supplies could be brought to the site via rail, it was preferred over Emu Field. A total of seven major tests were conducted at Maralinga. Both the Federal government and Australian newspapers at the time were very supportive of the tests. [6] In 1952, the Liberal Government passed legislation, the Defence (Special Undertakings) Act 1952, which allowed the British Government access to remote parts of Australia to undertake atmospheric nuclear weapons tests. The general public were largely unaware of the risks from the testing program, stemming from official secrecy about the testing program and the remote locations of the test sites.
Before the tests could begin the Maralinga Tjarutja, the traditional Aboriginal owners of the land, were forcibly removed. [7]
An air base at Woomera, 570 km away, which had been used for rocket testing, was initially used as a base from which planes were flown for testing of the bomb clouds. [7]
| Name | Date [5] | Yield [5] | Type | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Operation Buffalo | ||||
| One tree | 27 Sep 1956 17:00 | 12.9 kt | Tower | |
| Marcoo | 04 Oct 1956 16:30 | 1.4 kt | Ground-level | |
| Kite | 11 Oct 1956 14:27 | 2.9 kt | Airdrop | |
| Breakaway | 22 Oct 1956 00:05 | 10.8 kt | Tower | |
| Operation Antler | ||||
| Tadje | 14 Sep 1957 14:35 | 0.93 kt | Tower | |
| Biak | 25 Sep 1957 10:00 | 5.67 kt | Tower | |
| Taranaki | 09 Oct 1957 16:15 | 26.6 kt | Balloon | |
According to Liz Tynan from James Cook University, the Maralinga tests were a striking example of extreme secrecy, but by the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British nuclear tests. Avon Hudson, an atomic veteran who participated as an Australian serviceman during the later stage Minor Trials became a prominent whistleblower. Some resourceful investigative journalists emerged and political scrutiny became more intense. [8] In June 1993, New Scientist journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article entitled "Britain's dirty deeds at Maralinga" and several related articles. [9]
Over a decade, 1953 to 1963, a series of "Minor Trials" occurred testing components of the Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs using in some instances radioactive and toxic materials, such as Plutonium, Beryllium, and Uranium. Most of the minor trials involved conventional explosions to map out the radioactive dispersion and contamination of military assets, building structures and early crash test dummies. The Minor Trial of Vixen A dispersing Plutonium over a wide area by conventional explosive was considered to have had the longest half-life of any test or trial conducted in Australia.
| Year | Location | Trial | Material | Quantity (kg) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1953 | Emu Field | Kitten | Beryllium | 0.036 |
| 1955 | Naya 3 | Tims | Uranium | 13.8 |
| 1955 | Naya | Kittens | Uranium | 5 |
| 1955–1957 | Naya | Kittens | Beryllium | 0.75 |
| 1955–1957 | Kittens area | Kittens | Uranium | 120 |
| 1956–1960 | Kuli TM4 | Tims | Uranium | 6605 |
| 1956–1958 | Naya 1 | Rats | Uranium | 151 |
| 1957 | Naya | Tims | Beryllium | 1.6 |
| 1957 | Naya 3 | Kittens | Uranium | 23.4 |
| 1957 | Wewak | Vixen A | Uranium | 67.8 |
| 1957 | Dobo | Rats | Uranium | 28 |
| 1957 | Taranaki | Vixen B | Uranium | 25 |
| 1959 | Wewak VK33 | Vixen A | Plutonium | 0.008 |
| 1959 | Wewak VK29 | Vixen A | Beryllium | 0.14 |
| 1959 | Wewak VK28 | Vixen A | Beryllium | 0.25 |
| 1959 | Wewak VK27 | Vixen A | Beryllium | 0.27 |
| 1959 | Wewak VK30 | Vixen A | Beryllium | 0.1 |
| 1959–1960 | Kuli TM11 | Tims | Beryllium | 26.2 |
| 1959–1960 | Kuli TM11 | Tims | Uranium | 67 |
| 1960 | Naya TM100 | Tims | Plutonium | 0.6 |
| 1960–1962 | Naya 2 | Kittens | Uranium | 32 |
| 1960–1961 | Kuli TM16 | Tims | Beryllium | 39 |
| 1961 | Kuli TM50 | Tims | Uranium | 90 |
| 1961 | Naya TM101 | Tims | Plutonium | 0.6 |
| 1961 | Wewak VK60A | Vixen A | Plutonium | 0.294 |
| 1961 | Wewak VK60C | Vixen A | Plutonium | 0.277 |
| 1961 | Wewak 60A | Vixen A | Beryllium | 1.72 |
| 1961 | Wewak 60B | Vixen A | Beryllium | 1.72 |
| 1961–1963 | Taranaki | Vixen B | Beryllium | 17.6 |
Opposition to the tests grew throughout the 1950s. A poll in 1957 found that almost half the population was against them. [10]
The British Nuclear Test Veterans Association (BNTVA) was set up in 1983 to gain recognition and restitution for personnel who took part in British and American tests in Australia. [11]
Veterans have claimed that they were treated as 'human guinea pigs' and that lives have subsequently been ruined as the testing had negative medical effects that last for generations, including cancers and children born with disabilities and genetic defects. The veterans disagree with the Ministry of Defence that there is no correlation between health effects and the tests, and that “no information is withheld”. [12]
Several books have been written about nuclear weapons testing in Australia. These include Britain, Australia and the Bomb , Maralinga: Australia's Nuclear Waste Cover-up and My Australian Story: Atomic Testing: The Diary of Anthony Brown, Woomera, 1953. In 2006 Wakefield Press published Beyond belief: the British bomb tests: Australia's veterans speak out by Roger Cross and veteran and whistleblower, Avon Hudson.
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Maralinga is a desert area around 3,300 square kilometres (1,300 sq mi) large located in the west of South Australia, within the Great Victoria Desert. The area is best known for being the location of several British nuclear tests in the 1950s.
Operation Hurricane was the first test of a British atomic device. A plutonium implosion device was detonated on 3 October 1952 in Main Bay, Trimouille Island, in the Montebello Islands in Western Australia. With the success of Operation Hurricane, the United Kingdom became the third nuclear power, after the United States and the Soviet Union.
Emu Field is the site of Operation Totem, a pair of nuclear tests conducted by the British Government in South Australia during October 1953.
Between 1956 and 1963, the United Kingdom conducted seven nuclear tests at the Maralinga site in South Australia, part of the Woomera Prohibited Area about 800 kilometres (500 mi) north west of Adelaide. Two major test series were conducted: Operation Buffalo in 1956 and Operation Antler the following year. Approximate weapon yields ranged from 1 to 27 kilotons of TNT. The Maralinga site was also used for minor trials, tests of nuclear weapons components not involving nuclear explosions. The tests codenamed "Kittens" were trials of neutron initiators; "Rats" and "Tims" measured how the fissile core of a nuclear weapon was compressed by the high explosive shock wave; and "Vixens" investigated the effects of fire or non-nuclear explosions on atomic weapons. The minor trials, numbering around 550, ultimately generated far more contamination than the major tests.
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