Nuclear power in Australia has been a topic of debate since the 1930s. Australia has one nuclear reactor (OPAL) at Lucas Heights, New South Wales, which is only used to produce radionuclides for nuclear medicine, and does not produce electricity. Australia hosts 33% of the world's proven uranium deposits, and is currently the world's third largest producer of uranium after Kazakhstan and Canada.[1]
Australia's extensive low-cost coal and natural gas reserves have historically been used as strong arguments for avoiding nuclear power.[2] The Liberal Party has advocated for the development of nuclear power and nuclear industries in Australia since the 1950s. The Gorton government moved to establish the Jervis Bay Nuclear Power Plant in the late 1960s, but plans were abandoned after John Gorton was replaced as prime minister in 1971. An anti-nuclear movement developed in Australia in the 1970s, initially focusing on prohibiting nuclear weapons testing and limiting the development of uranium mining and export. The movement also challenged the environmental and economic costs of developing nuclear power and the possibility of fissile material being diverted into nuclear weapons production.[citation needed]
A resurgence of interest in nuclear power was prompted by Prime Minister John Howard in 2007 in response to the need to move to low-carbon methods of power generation in order to reduce the effects of global warming on Australia. In 2015, South Australian Premier Jay Weatherill initiated a Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission to investigate the state's future role in the nuclear fuel cycle. As of 2018[update] there are three active uranium mines, Ranger in Northern Territory, Olympic Dam in South Australia, and Beverley with Four Mile in South Australia. The Royal Commission determined that there was no case for the introduction of nuclear power to the electricity grid in South Australia, but it did not consider its potential interstate. In its final report of May 2016, the Royal Commission recommended that prohibitions preventing the development of nuclear power plants nationally should be repealed.
In 2017, former prime minister Tony Abbott advocated for legislation to be changed to allow the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia.[3] The former Deputy Premier of New South Wales, John Barilaro, has also been urging for debate on the prospect of nuclear power in Australia, including the revisiting of Jervis Bay as a prospective site for a nuclear power plant.[4][5] In November 2017, Senator Cory Bernardi presented the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Facilitation) Bill 2017 in the Senate, with the intention of repealing existing prohibitions preventing the establishment of nuclear power in Australia.[6]
Historic and present nuclear reactors in Australia
In total, three nuclear reactors have been built and operated in Australia over the course of history. All have been located at ANSTO (formely AAEC) headquarter site at Lucas Heights, New South Wales, and all have been research reactors that were not used for power (electric or thermal) generation. The first Australian nuclear reactor was the HIFAR reactor, which was operational 1958-2007, and the second Australian nuclear reactor was the MOATA reactor, which was operational 1961-1995 and became the first Australian reactor to be fully decommissioned in 2009, and the third Australian nuclear reactor is the OPAL reactor, which has been operational 2006-present. No other working (achieved criticality) nuclear reactors have existed in Australia, as of 2024.
Unsuccessful nuclear power station concepts and proposals
1952 Upper Spencer Gulf, South Australia
In 1952, South Australian Premier Tom Playford expressed with confidence that the first location for a nuclear power station in Australia would be on the shores of Spencer Gulf.[7] In July of that year, it was announced more specifically that Backy Bay (later renamed Fitzgerald Bay), located between Whyalla and Port Augusta would be the site.[8][9] The station was never constructed, though the region reemerged again in 2007 as a prospect for a nuclear power station during the Federal leadership of Prime Minister John Howard.[10]
1969 Jervis Bay, New South Wales
Part of the Murrays Beach Car Park in the Jervis Bay Territory in 2020; the car park occupies part of the site cleared for the nuclear power plant
In 1969, a 500 MW nuclear power station was proposed for the Jervis Bay Territory, 200km south of Sydney.[11] A local opposition campaign began, and the South Coast Trades and Labour Council (covering workers in the region) announced that it would refuse to build the reactor.[12] Some environmental studies and site works were completed, and two rounds of tenders were called and evaluated, but in 1971 the Australian government decided not to proceed with the project, citing economic reasons.[11][13]
1979 Perth, Western Australia
In 1977–78, the Western Australian Government, under the leadership of Charles Court, announced plans for a nuclear power reactor near Perth. 1977 was seen as the year of mass mobilisation in WA, with 300 at the first anti-nuclear demonstration to 9,000 at the third protest in the inner city of Perth. Despite public protest, the WA Government selected a first site for a nuclear reactor in 1979 at Wilbinga, 70 kilometres north of Perth. Court predicted that at least another 20 nuclear power stations would be needed by the end of the century to meet rapidly growing power demand, but none of this came to pass.[14]
1980s and 2007 Portland, Victoria
In 2007 it was reported that businessman Ron Walker, director of the company Australian Nuclear Energy had considered Portland as a possible location for a future nuclear power station. Glenelg Mayor Gilbert Wilson said that he thought it was unlikely that such a project would receive community support. He added that he believed any community in Victoria would oppose it, were it to be located in their area.[15] A concept to develop a 2,400 MW nuclear power station at Portland at a cost of $3 billion was previously raised and abandoned in the early 1980s.[16] In 1983, nuclear power development became prohibited under the Nuclear Activities (Prohibitions) Act 1983 in the state of Victoria and the law remains in place in 2020. Section 8 of the Act also prohibits uranium milling, enriching, fuel production, fuel reprocessing and waste storage.[17]
2007 Upper Spencer Gulf, South Australia
While a nuclear power station in South Australia's Upper Spencer Gulf region was discussed intermittently from 2007, no formal proposal to construct a plant was ever made.
In 2007, The Australian newspaper revealed that a location near Port Augusta in the Upper Spencer Gulf region of South Australia was being considered for a future nuclear power station. A company called Australian Nuclear Energy had been registered on 1 June 2006 with three prominent Australian businessmen as major shareholders: Robert Champion de Crespigny (former Chancellor of the University of Adelaide), Ron Walker (former Lord Mayor of Melbourne) and Hugh Morgan (former director of Western Mining Corporation). Prime Minister John Howard supported the formation of the company, describing it as a "great idea".[10]
Five days after the company was registered, the Federal Government established the Switkowski review into nuclear energy. The company examined the viability of building a 20-50 megawatt pilot station in the Upper Spencer Gulf area, at a cost of $70 million-$150 million, and had spoken to American company GE about supplying a nuclear reactor.[18]
South Australian Premier Mike Rann responded to news of the investigation by saying:
It won't be built in this state while I am the Premier or Labor is in power... read my lips, no nuclear power station in South Australia.[18]
On 7 April 2011, former Australian politician Alexander Downer addressed the students of UCL's Adelaide campus, discussing nuclear power. A long term advocate for nuclear power, he told The Australian that the South Australian town of Whyalla (also on Upper Spencer Gulf) would be ideal for a nuclear power station to serve the interests of BHP, South Australia and the eastern states. He stated:
You could attach it to a desalination plant, so you could solve the problem of Olympic Dam and Roxby Downs... The Upper Spencer Gulf cities, instead of using Murray River water, they could use desalinated water. And we would have a nuclear power station that would create power for the eastern states' grid.[19]
The Olympic Dam project was expected to use about 400 MWh of electricity per day if the proposed mine expansion went ahead. In 2011, the Olympic Dam mine expansion received State and Federal environmental approval, but in 2012, the BHP board decided not to proceed with the mine expansion as planned citing weakened economic conditions as the reason.[18]
In 2012 a first-of-a-kind study was undertaken in which a combination of solar and wind technology, proposed as a replacement for the ageing Northern coal power station, was comprehensively compared with a reference nuclear reactor. Assuming equal public confidence and an established regulatory framework, the nuclear energy option compared favourably on cost, reliability, commercial availability, plant lifetime and greenhouse gas abatement, among other criteria.[20]
In April 2016, Australia committed to purchasing French-designed Barracuda-class attack submarines with customised diesel propulsion systems, despite the existing French fleet being wholly nuclear-powered. On 15 September 2021, following the signing of a security partnership named AUKUS between Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom, it was announced that Australia would develop nuclear-powered submarines, using US and British technology.[21] This sparked outrage in France which lost the contract for what was to become the most expensive defence acquisition in Australia's history. France withdrew their ambassadors in the US and Australia in protest of the deal.[22] The surprise termination of the agreement by Australia under the Morrison government was settled with a payment of €555 million from Australia to France.[23]Anthony Albanese stated that the failed agreement would cost Australia 3.4 billion dollars with "almost nothing to show for it".[23]
As uranium prices began rising from about 2003 onwards, proponents of nuclear power advocated it as a solution to global warming and the Australian Government began taking an interest. In late 2006 and early 2007, the Prime Minister, John Howard, made widely-reported statements in favour of nuclear power, on environmental grounds.[24] Faced with these proposals to examine nuclear power as a possible response to climate change, anti-nuclear campaigners and scientists in Australia claimed that nuclear power could not significantly substitute for other power sources, and that uranium mining itself could become a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions.[25][26]
In 2006, the Howard government commissioned the Switkowski report, an investigation into the merits of nuclear power in Australia. The report concluded that nuclear energy would be competitive with coal-fired power stations if carbon credit sanctions were imposed upon Australia. The industry would have been able to produce its first power station in 10 years and could have delivered 25 such stations by the year 2050, thereby supplying Australia with a third of its baseload power.[27]
Queensland introduced legislation to ban nuclear power development on 20 February 2007.[28] Tasmania attempted a ban on nuclear power facilities,[29] but later, did not pass the bill.[30] Both bills were formulated in response to the pro-nuclear position of John Howard,[31] in addition to the release of the Switkowski report.[32]
Anti-nuclear campaigns were given added impetus by public concern about the sites for possible reactors; fears exploited by anti-nuclear political parties in the lead-up to the national election in 2007.[33][34] The Rudd Labor government was elected in November 2007 and was opposed to nuclear power for Australia.[35][36] The anti-nuclear movement continues to be active in Australia, opposing the expansion of existing uranium mines, lobbying against the development of nuclear power in Australia, and criticising proposals for nuclear waste disposal sites.[37]
At the same time, a number of Australian politicians have argued that the development of nuclear power is in the country's best interests. Notably, on 13 June 2008, the New South Wales National Party’s annual state conference passed a resolution, proposed by delegates from Dubbo, supporting research into the development of a nuclear power industry, as well as the establishment of an international nuclear waste storage facility in Australia. The resolution was opposed by the delegates from New South Wales’ North Coast and by the party's state leader, Andrew Stoner.[38][39]
In 2005, the Australian Government threatened to use its constitutional powers to take control of the approval process for new uranium mines from the then anti-nuclear Northern Territory Government. State governments controlled by the Australian Labor Party were blocking the development of new mines in their jurisdictions while the ALP's "No New Mines policy" was in force.
In April 2007, the Labor Party, under the new leadership of Kevin Rudd, voted at their national conference to abandon the policy. The vote was only won by a narrow margin of 205 to 190, and resulted in a large amount of internal criticism. Ministers Peter Garrett and Anthony Albanese remained outspokenly opposed to the decision due to the unresolved problems of nuclear waste storage and nuclear weapons proliferation.
Nuclear debate in Australia increased after the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.[42] Some protesters[who?] demanded a halt to uranium mining and nuclear power generation in their country and throughout the world.[43]
During the Labor-led Rudd-Gillard government, the party's opposition to nuclear power was upheld, while conversely, Resources and Energy Minister Martin Ferguson demonstrated his support for the uranium mining sector. Ferguson retired in 2013 and was replaced by Gary Gray who subsequently indicated support for future nuclear industrial development in Australia. At a South Australian mining and energy sector conference, he stated "I am optimistic that we will get (power) generation issues attended to and that it will be done in a timely fashion".[44]
In 2013, the Liberal Party, led by Tony Abbott, resumed power and reopened discussions about the future of nuclear energy generation in Australia. Since Abbott's appointment, former Prime Minister John Howard, former Foreign Minister Alexander Downer, and several members of the Abbott government have openly advocated for the consideration of nuclear power development, including then-Foreign Minister Julie Bishop.[45]
In 2014, the federal government released an energy green paper which articulated the potential for Australia in modern nuclear capacity, including small modular reactors, Generation IV reactor technologies and the role of thorium as nuclear fuel,[52] though industry minister Ian MacFarlane opined that "there is no need to have a debate in regard to nuclear energy in Australia but we should focus on the opportunities that nuclear energy presents in other countries and build our uranium industry to take advantage of that."[53] In contrast, Foreign Minister Julie Bishop declared support for nuclear energy, saying "It's an obvious conclusion that if you want to bring down your greenhouse gas emissions dramatically you have to embrace a form of low or zero-emissions energy and that's nuclear, the only known 24/7 baseload power supply with zero emissions."[54] The call for sensible discussion was publicly welcomed by economists and at least one member of the federal opposition.[55] The CEO of Origin Energy spoke in support of the prospect[56] and Business SA demanded the lifting of federal prohibitions so that debate on specific designs could proceed.[57]
In December 2014, Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott told the ABC that he was open to considering a proposal for a nuclear power project for Australia should one be made. He said that proponents of such a project should not expect to receive a government subsidy and that "if it's going to happen, it's going to happen because it's economically feasible." He also described nuclear energy as "the one absolutely proven way of generating emissions-free baseload power."[59]
In January 2015 an open letter[60] was addressed to environmental organisations and signed by seventy-five[61] distinguished climate science experts, including twenty-seven Australian-based academics, endorsing the findings of a peer-reviewed article which quantified the potential climate and biodiversity benefits of nuclear energy.[62]
In February 2015 South Australian Premier Jay Weatherill announced that a Royal Commission would be held to investigate South Australia's future role in the nuclear fuel cycle. Kevin Scarce, former Governor of South Australia, retired Rear Admiral of the Royal Australian Navy and current Chancellor of the University of Adelaide, was appointed Commissioner. A final report of the commission's findings was published in May 2016 which recommended that several existing legislative constraints be repealed.
In June 2017, former Prime Minister Tony Abbott acknowledged fellow former Prime Minister Bob Hawke's support for expanding the nuclear industry in Australia and asserted that the "Australian Labor government under Premier Jay Weatherill would like to develop new industries to supplement the uranium mine at Roxby Downs. Why not have a nuclear submarine servicing facility in that state – and the industries that would inevitably spin-off?"[64]
In November 2017, Senator Cory Bernardi presented the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Facilitation) Bill in the Senate. The bill is intended to repeal prohibitions preventing the future establishment of nuclear power in Australia and the further processing of uranium and spent nuclear fuel.[6] It is the sixth-oldest bill still currently before the Senate as of 10 October 2019.[65]
In 2019, the Federal Government held an inquiry into nuclear power. It recommended that the ban be removed for advanced nuclear reactors.
On 6 June 2019 the state of New South Wales began an inquiry on the Uranium Mining and Nuclear Facilities (Prohibitions) Repeal Bill 2019.
On 14 August 2019 the state of Victoria launched an inquiry into Australia's nuclear prohibition.
In September 2021, Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States signed an agreement that would allow for the sharing of nuclear propulsion technology between the three countries to assist Australia in acquiring nuclear-powered submarines.[66]
In 2023, Opposition Leader Peter Dutton began advocating for the introduction of nuclear power in Australia; particularly, small modular reactors, which he claimed could be placed on the sites of decommissioned coal-fired power stations.[67]
On 19 June 2024, Peter Dutton announced his policy for the rollout of nuclear power in Australia. His plan called for the construction of reactors on the sites of retiring coal-fired power stations, including at Tarong, Callide, Liddell, Mount Piper, Port Augusta, Loy Yang and Muja, with the first two plants coming online between 2035 and 2037. It was noted that the proposed sites in Western Australia and South Australia will only be suitable for small modular reactors, with the other sites apparently being suitable for either small or larger-scale plants. Dutton also proposed that the Australian Government would be responsible for funding the construction of the reactors, and thereafter, would assume full ownership once they entered operation.[68]
Nuclear waste storage
One of the arguments often made by opponents of nuclear power in Australia is the problem of managing long-lived and hazardous radioactive waste, including, but not limited to, spent nuclear fuel.
A case has been made[when?] for Australia to centralise the management of its nuclear waste, which is currently held in temporary storage facilities at various locations around the country.
In response to the Northern Land Council's withdrawal of a section of Muckaty Station in the Northern Territory as a potential nuclear waste facility for Australian domestically-produced nuclear waste in 2014,[69] it was articulated that the process had suffered from a lack of recognition of the limited hazard posed by existing waste, which is currently stored at over one hundred sites in cities and industrial areas.[70] Furthermore, an open tender process for volunteered sites has attracted interest from pastoralists.[71] Site nominations closed on 5 May 2015, in a process endorsed by Federal MP Rowan Ramsay. Ramsay supports the establishment of a waste storage facility in South Australia, and has said:
Having been to France, Sweden and Finland and looked at their low level repositories I'd be more than happy to have one on my farm.[72]
On 29 April 2015 Josh Frydenberg MP, the Minister for Resources, Energy and Northern Australia, announced the shortlisting of Wallerberdina Station near Barndioota in South Australia's Flinders Ranges as a possible site.[73] This site was ruled out in 2019, however two sites near Kimba are still possibilities as of the end of 2019.[74]
Nuclear law
The Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 prohibits certain nuclear actions specified in s.22A unless a federal approval is obtained. It specifically prohibits nuclear power generation in s.140A (an amendment insisted upon by the Australian Democrats). The Act states that the Minister must not approve an action consisting of or involving the construction or operation of a nuclear fuel fabrication plant, or a nuclear power station, or an enrichment plant, or a reprocessing facility.[75]
As of 2018, Australia has one operating nuclear reactor, the open-pool Australian lightwater reactor research reactor at Lucas Heights which supplies the vast majority of Australia's nuclear medicine. It replaced the High Flux Australian Reactor which operated from 1958 to 2007 at the same site, around a similar time to the MOATA reactor.[76] These are the only three nuclear reactors to have been used in Australia. None of them has been used to generate electricity.
Additional nuclear industrial prohibitions exist under state legislation in South Australia and Victoria.
South Australia
The objects of the Nuclear Waste Storage Facility (Prohibition) Act 2000 are "to protect the health, safety and welfare of the people of South Australia and to protect the environment in which they live by prohibiting the establishment of certain nuclear waste storage facilities in this State." As such, the Act prohibits the:
Construction or operation of nuclear waste storage facility
Importation or transportation of nuclear waste for delivery to a nuclear waste storage facility[77]
to protect the health, welfare and safety of the people of Victoria and to limit deterioration of the environment in which they dwell by prohibiting the establishment of nuclear activities and by regulating the possession of certain nuclear materials, in a manner consistent with and conducive to assisting the Commonwealth of Australia in meeting its international nuclear non-proliferation objectives.
As such, the Act prohibits the construction or operation of a nuclear reactor as well as exploration:
for the production of uranium or thorium ore concentrates
for conversion or enrichment of any nuclear material
for the fabrication of fuels for use in nuclear reactors
In the 2010 book Why vs. Why: Nuclear Power[79]Barry Brook and Ian Lowe discuss and articulate the debate about nuclear power. Brook argues that there are various reasons why people should say "yes" to nuclear power, and these reasons include:[79]
Australian Nuclear Energy is an Australian company established in 2006 to investigate the feasibility of developing a nuclear power industry in Australia. It sought to investigate the possibility of constructing a station in South Australia or Victoria. Directors include Ron Walker (former Lord Mayor of Melbourne), Hugh Morgan (former director of Western Mining Corporation) and Robert Champion de Crespigny (former Chancellor of the University of Adelaide). Ron Walker publicly welcomed the announcement in 2015 of a Royal Commission to investigate South Australia's role in the nuclear fuel cycle.[80]
Silex Systems is an Australian technology company which has developed SILEX (Separation of isotopes by laser excitation) for the purposes of uranium enrichment. The company has partnered with multinational nuclear power plant manufacturers General Electric and Hitachi and the world's largest uranium mining company, Cameco through a joint-venture called Global Laser Enrichment. In 2013, Silex Systems' CEO Dr Michael Goldsworthy advocated for Australia to embrace nuclear power. He told the ABC:
Our insatiable hunger for fossil fuels has to be tempered going forward and the only alternative for base load grid power, that's the power you need 24/7, other than coal, is nuclear power.[81]
SMR Nuclear Technology is a private Australian company established in 2012 with the goal of deploying small modular reactors in Australia and changing legislation to allow for it.[82] The reactors are light water reactors and can be air-cooled so that coastal locations (which would otherwise provide seawater for cooling) would not be required. Technical director Tony Irwin described the reactors as being "the size of a large petrol filling station... and the reactor is underground so it is again safe from external hazards or terrorists." Possible customers for SMR Nuclear Technology include large mining operations in remote locations. He also stated that the reactors would be suitable for integration into the existing Australian electricity grid system.[83]
South Australian Nuclear Energy Systems is an Australian private company registered on 1 January 2014.[84] The company is chaired by merchant banker and former News International director Bruce Hundertmark[85] and its board includes Ian Kowalick (former chief of staff to ex-Liberal premier John Olsen), Richard Cherry (former executive officer of the US nuclear industry and consultant), Eric Dunlop and scientists Tom Wigley and Stephen Lincoln.[86] The company has discussed its business proposals with Federal and State politicians, with a view to amending laws that ban nuclear power generation. Hundertmark told The New Daily in 2014 that "The funding of the things that need to be done is not a real problem – the problem is to get the legislative changes needed".[87]
Politicians
Alexander DownerSean Edwards
In 2011, South Australian Treasurer Kevin Foley said that he thought Australia should embrace nuclear power.[88]
Former Prime Minister John Howard continues to advocate for nuclear power. In 2013 he stated that he believed nuclear power, shale oil, and fracking for gas will meet the world's energy needs.[89]
Former Federal politicians Alexander Downer (Liberal) and Martin Ferguson (Labor) have both advocated for nuclear power and for the expansion of uranium mining in Australia. In 2010, Liberal Opposition member Greg Hunt said of Ferguson: "Behind the scenes, we all know Martin Ferguson is agitating for nuclear energy against his Prime Minister, against Senator Wong."[90] Despite coming from opposing major parties, Downer has described Ferguson as:
One minister who is not only competent but also does have convictions. He is the Resources Minister and often is quoted as supporting the further development of Australia's uranium industry. There is no doubt he also is a supporter of nuclear power in Australia.
In 2013, Gary Gray suggested that opportunities existed for Australia in nuclear power and the nuclear fuel cycle.[91]
Former Prime Minister Tony Abbott and the coalition government he presided over expressed support for nuclear industrial development in Australia. The Federal Government allocated $2.5 billion in the May 2014 budget to fund clean energy initiatives, including "clean power stations". On 13 June 2014, Abbott said that the Australian government "did not believe in ostracising any particular fuel".[87] In 2010, while leader of the Opposition, Tony Abbott stated that he believed nuclear power was the only proven way to generate baseload electricity while reducing carbon emissions and maintaining Australia's standard of living.[92]
Liberal party Senator, David Fawcett offered expert advice to a concept plan for A nuclear future for South Australia, published in January 2013 by the Defence Teaming Centre.[93]
In November 2014, Federal Foreign Minister Julie Bishop described nuclear power as an "obvious direction" in reducing Australia's carbon emissions while utilizing the country's reserves of uranium.[45]
In 2015, Family First leader and Senator Bob Day presented a bill intended to legalise nuclear power and other nuclear fuel cycle activities in Australia. The bill did not pass. He also expressed his support for nuclear-powered submarines.[94]
In December 2016, former Prime Minister Bob Hawke described nuclear power as a means to fight global warming, and restated his support for Australia to import spent nuclear fuel from other countries.[95]
Former National party MP Karlene Maywald signed an open letter in 2016 following the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission in SA, urging governments to continue considering the importation of spent nuclear fuel.[100] A similar open letter was also signed in March 2017 by former MPs Trish White (Labor) and Ian McLachlan (Liberal).[101]
In 2017, Deputy Premier of New South Wales John Barilaro expressed his interest in exploring the possibility of nuclear power for Australia.[4][5]
In November 2017, Cory Bernardi of the Australian Conservatives introduced the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Facilitation) Bill in the Senate. During subsequent debates, the bill was strongly supported by Senators Eric Abetz, David Leyonhjelm and Ian Macdonald.[102]
Former Liberal party minister and Leader of the Opposition, Peter Dutton[103]
Defence
Paul Barratt, former secretary of Australia's Department of Defence, has advocated for nuclear power to be adopted in order to reduce Australia's carbon emissions.[81] He has an honours degree in physics from the University of New England and is a friend of fellow nuclear power advocate and former Prime Minister, John Howard.
The Defence Teaming Centre's chief executive officer Chris Burns believes that South Australia could become the "future Dubai of the world" if it embraces nuclear industries, including enrichment of nuclear fuel.[104]
Governor General Peter Cosgrove believes that in the context of climate change "there is hardly a cleaner energy resource" than nuclear power. Cosgrove believes that Australia should be moving towards nuclear power and has disputed claims that nuclear power is unsafe, stating "We are a rich and technologically advanced nation sitting in a geologically stable continent. So surely we can expect to build and operate safe nuclear power stations."[92]
Australian Industry Group Defence Council chairman Chris Jenkins has recommended that Australia considers acquiring nuclear submarines. University of NSW Professor of International Security, Professor Alan Dupont supported the recommendation and defence analyst Professor Ross Babbage added that such a development would require a "specialist class of nuclear technicians" to service the fleet.
Individuals
In 2006, Ziggy Switkowski was appointed to chair a Commonwealth Governmentinquiry into the viability of a domestic nuclear power industry.[105] The inquiry concluded that Australia is well positioned to increase its production and export of uranium as well as adding nuclear power to its own energy mix.[106] However, an independent panel of Australian scientists and nuclear experts have been critical of these findings,[107] saying that they relied upon flawed assumptions while dodging important questions such as the disposal of radioactive waste and the potential greenhouse gas implications of increased mining. Switkowski was later appointed chairman of the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO). His term as chairman concluded at the end of 2010.
Ben Heard is an environmental consultant and founder of Decarbonise SA, a blog where he advocates for nuclear power in South Australia. He has co-authored numerous articles with scientist Barry Brook, including a nuclear series for the South Australian Chamber of Mines & Energy. His business, ThinkClimate Consulting, has provided commercial services to uranium mining company, Heathgate Resources.
Dick Smith held firm on his support for nuclear power following the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011. He said that burning coal "could result in hundreds of millions of people dying, and if that's true … that could be far worse than using nuclear."[98]
William Shackel is an advocate, who founded Nuclear for Australia in 2022, a youth-led campaign for the prohibition on nuclear energy to be lifted in Australia. He has made numerous appearances in the Australian media, where he presents a factual case about the position of nuclear energy in Australia.[108][109][110]
Media
Commercial radio personality Amanda Blair appeared on WIN's Today program in March 2015. She repeated the phrase "go nukes" and talked about a possible nuclear waste dump in South Australia's north as being an economic boon.[111]
David Penberthy, Editor-in-chief of the News Limited website news.com.au published an editorial entitled "SA ticks boxes for nuclear energy and waste storage" on 13 March 2015. He drew attention to the modest number of protesters acknowledging the fourth anniversary of the Fukushima nuclear disaster and promoted the idea of South Australia becoming "the nuclear state".[112]
Senior writer for The Age, John Watson has espoused the safety of nuclear power stations in several pieces in 2013 with reference to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.[113][114][115]
ABC TV program Stateline in South Australia has run a number of stories on nuclear power since 2005. Voices in support of nuclear power including politicians, public servants and representatives of the uranium mining industry have outnumbered opponents. Stateline's former South Australian host, Ian Henschke has also written for The Advertiser espousing the merits of nuclear power.
The Advertiser has promoted uranium mining in South Australia and has advocated for the expansion of the nuclear industry in the state by interviewing spokespeople from the business community, uranium mining industry, economists, academics and industry consultants.[116] Reporting journalists include Cameron England, Christopher Russell, Valerina Changerathil, Tory Shepherd and Andrew Hough. The newspaper has also published many opinion editorial pieces promoting nuclear power. These pieces often diminish safety concerns held by opponents and promote the safety of nuclear power and in some cases, exposure to ionizing radiation. They also focus on nuclear power's ability to provide base-load power and its potential to replace coal-fired power plants thus reducing risk of catastrophic climate change. Opinion writers include Barry Brook, Geoff Russell[117] and Ian Henschke. Counterpoints occasionally feature from authors such as Jim Green from Friends of the Earth.
Scientists
Professor Barry Brook
Barry Brook is the current Chair of Environmental Sustainability at the University of Tasmania and a former professor of climate science in the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Adelaide. He has been a strong advocate for nuclear power since 2009, promoting the technology as a means to mitigate the impacts of climate change, especially the Integral Fast Reactor.[118] His most recent book is Why vs Why: Nuclear Power. The book was co-authored with Professor Ian Lowe, who represents opposing views.
Tom Quirk is a nuclear physicist, former Rio Tinto employee and former board member of the Institute of Public Affairs. He supports the expansion of Australia's role in the nuclear fuel chain to include uranium enrichment, fuel reprocessing and waste storage.
The Australian Nuclear Forum supports the development of nuclear power in Australia.[119] Its members include Terry Krieg, a retired geology teacher from Port Lincoln who has supported nuclear power since 1981 and has appeared several times reading prepared statements on ABC Radio National since 2011.[120][121]
Australian Workers' Union National Secretary Paul Howes has been an active advocate for the legalisation of nuclear power in Australia and called for an urgent debate in 2009. He also referred to the uranium mining ban in Queensland and exploration bans in New South Wales and Victoria as ''superstitions of another age.''[122] Queensland and New South Wales bans were subsequently lifted.
BusinessSA, South Australia's Chamber of Commerce and Industry, promotes nuclear power development. The Chamber has demanded the lifting of federal prohibitions so that debate on specific nuclear reactor designs can proceed. In December 2014, spokesperson Nigel McBride stated: "We need governments to get out of the way." Business SA is pushing for a specific project to be considered; a $3 billion micro reactor known as a Prism power plant designed by General Electric and Hitachi. A fast-breeder reactor, it would convert used nuclear fuel rods and surplus plutonium into energy. He described the technology as safe and innovative, and argued the proposal would pay its own way after five years.[83]
Engineers Australia's spokesperson Tony Irwin has called for "simple legislation change" to allow the development of nuclear industries, particularly the deployment of small modular reactors. Irwin is also technical director for the private company SMR Nuclear Technology.[83]
The World Nuclear Association supports the development of nuclear power in Australia. The organisation's Senior Research Analyst and former Director of Public Information is Ian Hore-Lacy. Hore-Lacy was previously the director of the Melbourne-based Uranium Information Centre and worked for CRA (now Rio Tinto) for 19 years.
Nuclear for Climate Australia is an advocacy group that proposes series of SMR as low-carbon and cost-effective solution for climate mitigation.[125]
Political parties
Support for nuclear power is usually associated with conservatism. Support for nuclear power has grown rapidly in recent years, especially among conservatives, due to its potential to assist Australia's emissions reduction targets, which have bipartisan support. Australia's emissions reduction targets involve net zero emissions by 2050.
Coalition
The Coalition, a centre-right alliance that consists of the Liberal Party (the more conservative of the two major parties) and the National Party (its junior Coalition partner that supports agrarianism), supports introducing nuclear power. The party's support for nuclear power has grown over the years. Since the election ofPeter Dutton as Liberal leader and Opposition Leader, the party has promised to build nuclear power plants in Australia if elected,[126] with the proposed nuclear reactors to be generating electricity by 2035 (for small modular reactors) or 2037 (for larger reactors).[127]
The Coalition's proposal has been backed by many Australians, particularly those who already supported nuclear power, but it has been criticised by opponents of nuclear power, such as members of the centre-leftLabor Party and the left-wingGreens party.
Supporters claim that nuclear power is a cheaper and reliable source of energy and note that it is zero-emissions technology used in several other countries with major economies,[128] and that Australia should also use nuclear technology.[129] Others have also pointed out that Australia will in the future receive nuclear-powered submarines from the United States and the United Kingdom under the AUKUS agreement. Nuclear power has also long been backed by right-wing minor parties.
Opponents claim that the technology is costly to build and maintain and that nuclear power would not be available in Australia for decades. Labor and Greens politicians oppose nuclear power, as do some power companies with private investors.[130] Others have even claimed that Dutton's plans for nuclear power are implausible.[131] Possibly due to nuclear power's popularity among younger people, Labor politicians have used memes to attack the Coalition's nuclear policy, most notably memes depicting fish and koalas with three eyes, in reference to the three-eyed-fish in The Simpsons.[132]
While the federal Coalition is actively pro-nuclear, the state branches are less vocal about it. The Tasmanian branch is not as optimistic as other state branches, as Tasmania's electricity mix already includes a large amount of renewable energy, namely solar and wind power, as well as hydroelectricity.[134][135]
Professor David Wigg (1933–2010), was the clinical examiner in radiotherapy physics for the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists from 1970 to 1978, and directed the expansion of radiation oncology and clinical radiobiology at the Royal Adelaide Hospital from 1980 until 1997.[141] In the years before his death, he published his views on the safety of low-dose radiation and the related misconceptions that impeded effective medical uses of radiation and the benefits of uranium mining and nuclear energy.[142]
The Australian Uranium Association was founded in September 2006 and advocated for the interests of uranium mining member companies. Its two full members were BHP Billiton and Energy Resources Australia (ERA), operators of the nation's two most established uranium mines: Olympic Dam and Ranger. In 2013, its work was integrated into the operation of the Minerals Council of Australia and the association was wound up.
Tim Flannery is a professor at Macquarie University, and the chairman of the Copenhagen Climate Council, an international climate change awareness group.[143] In 2006 he supported nuclear power as a possible solution for reducing Australia's carbon emissions,[144][145] but in 2007 he changed his position[146] and in May 2007 told a business gathering in Sydney that while nuclear energy does have a role elsewhere in the world, Australia's abundance of renewable resources rule out the need for nuclear power in the near term. He does however feel that Australia should and will have to supply its uranium to those other countries that do not have access to renewables like Australia does.[147]
Opposition to the development of nuclear power in Australia originated in the 1970s. The Australian anti-nuclear movement initially lobbied for bans on nuclear weapons testing in the Pacific and on uranium mining in Australia. Dr Helen Caldicott, a pediatrician from Melbourne emerged as a leading voice of the movement as she conducted public talks and informed politicians and trade unions of the health risks of exposure to ionizing radiation.
Western Australia has a significant share of the Australia's uranium reserves, but between 2002 and 2008, a statewide ban on uranium mining was in force. The ban was lifted when the Liberal Party was voted into power in the state and, as of 2010, many companies are exploring for uranium in Western Australia. One of the industry's major players, the mining company BHP Billiton, planned to develop the Yeelirrie uranium project in a 17billion dollar project.[150] Two other projects in Western Australia are further advanced then BHP's Yeelirrie, these being the Lake Way uranium project, which is pursued by Toro Energy, and the Lake Maitland uranium project, pursued by Mega Uranium.[151][152][153] But it is unlikely that any new projects will enter active development until the market improves. As of 2013 uranium prices are very low.[154]
As of late 2010, there were calls for Australians to debate whether the nation should adopt nuclear power as part of its energy mix. Nuclear power is seen to be "a divisive issue that can arouse deep passions among those for and against".[155]
Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear emergency in Japan, where three nuclear reactors were damaged by explosions, Ian Lowe sees the nuclear power option as being risky and unworkable for Australia. Lowe says nuclear power is too expensive, with insurmountable problems associated with waste disposal and weapons proliferation. It is also not a fast enough response to address climate change. Lowe advocates renewable energy which is "quicker, less expensive and less dangerous than nuclear".[156]
Nuclear reactors are banned in Queensland[157] and Tasmania.[158] Uranium mining was previously prohibited in New South Wales under the Uranium Prohibition Act of 1986, however in 2012 Premier Barry O'Farrell amended the legislation to allow prospecting and mining of uranium in that State.[159]
In December 2011, the sale of uranium to India was a contentious issue. MPs clashed over the issue and protesters were marched from Sydney's convention centre before Prime Minister Julia Gillard's motion to remove a party ban on uranium sales to India was narrowly supported 206 votes to 185. Long-time anti-nuclear campaigner Peter Garrett MP spoke against the motion.[160]
More than 400 people joined a "Lizard's Revenge march" to the Olympic Dam site in July 2012. The anti-nuclear activists, including Elder Kevin Buzzacott, protested against the mine expansion and the uranium industry. They say the company and the government have put short-term economic gain ahead of environmental and health concerns. Organiser Nectaria Calan said police harassed protesters, demanding identification and controlling access to and from their campsite.[161]
In March 2012, hundreds of anti-nuclear demonstrators converged on the Australian headquarters of global mining giants BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto. The 500-strong march through southern Melbourne called for an end to uranium mining in Australia, and included speeches and performances by representatives of the expatriate Japanese community as well as Australia's Indigenous communities, who are concerned about the effects of uranium mining near tribal lands. There were also events in Sydney.[162]
A site within Muckaty Station was being considered for Australia's low-level and intermediate-level radioactive waste storage and disposal facility. The plan was subject to a Federal Court challenge.[163] The nomination of Muckaty was withdrawn in June 2014.[69]
Historically, many prospective Australian uranium mines have been constrained by active antinuclear opposition, but state governments have now approved mine development in Western Australia and Queensland. But it is unlikely that any new projects will enter active development until the market improves. As of 2013 uranium prices are very low. Cameco placed the Kintyre project on hold until market prices improve and Paladin has stated that its project proposals (Bigrlyi, Angela/Pamela, Manyingee, Oobagooma, and Valhalla/Skal) need higher uranium market prices before they can proceed. Toro wants to take the Wiluna proposal to the development phase, but has not been successful in attracting equity investors. When market prices go up again, so that mine development is justified, most projects would need at least five years to proceed to production.[154]
As of 2015, nuclear power remains opposed by a number of not-for-profit and environmental organizations, political parties and their members, renewable energy advocates, and anti-nuclear campaigners. There are several prominent Australians who have publicly expressed anti-nuclear views:
The Australian Greens are formally opposed to nuclear power in Australia. The party's spokesperson on the issue is South Australian senator, Sarah Hanson-Young.
The Australian Labor Party was internally conflicted over uranium mining policy during the leadership of former Prime Minister Bob Hawke during the 1980s, but has maintained opposition to the development of nuclear power in Australia. Since the Rudd government, some Labor party politicians have expressed their support for expanded nuclear industries in Australia. These include Martin Ferguson and Tom Koutsantonis. Koutsantonis has expressed his support for the development of uranium enrichment capacity in South Australia.
Opinion polls
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2024)
A McNair Gallup poll on the construction of nuclear power stations in Australia was carried out in 1979. The same poll was conducted again 28 years later in 2007 on 1,000 randomly selected people throughout Australia. A new poll was asked in 2009 which marked the first time that more people support nuclear power than oppose it, although the support for nuclear power was still not an outright majority. Respondents were asked the following question:
Do you favour or oppose the construction of nuclear power stations in Australia?
Opposition to the construction of nuclear power stations in the 2007 poll was strongest amongst females, Greens supporters and Australians aged 18–29 and 40–49.[177]
Do you favour or oppose the construction of nuclear power stations in Australia?
TOTAL
ALP
Coalition
Greens
Favour
41%
30%
59%
22%
Oppose
53%
66%
34%
78%
Don't know
6%
4%
7%
0%
The McNair Gallup Poll showed a significant difference in opinion between ALP, Coalition and Green supporters, and moderate differences by gender. Men were more likely to favour the construction of nuclear power stations (55%), with twice as many males in favour of the construction of nuclear power stations in Australia than women. 41% of men were more likely to oppose the construction of nuclear power stations in Australia. In contrast, 65% of women were more likely to oppose the construction of nuclear power stations in Australia, while 28% favour the construction of nuclear power stations.
A 2014 independent survey, commissioned by SACOME, of 1,214 South Australians revealed a distinct trend in the community towards supporting consideration of nuclear energy.[178]
Please rate your level of support for Nuclear Power.
TOTAL
Female
Male
18–34
35–50
51–65
65+
Total Support
48.0%
44.5%
64.4%
52.3%
53.8%
52.3%
59.8%
Neutral
19.5%
26.2%
16.9%
22.9%
20.6%
21.6%
21.8%
Total Oppose
32.6%
29.3%
18.6%
24.7%
25.6%
26.0%
18.4%
The proportion of neutral respondents was at around 20-25% in all categories, with qualitative feedback largely indicating conditional support given the satisfactory addressing of concerns, or a requirement for further information. Positive responses outnumbered the negative, most dramatically men and the elderly, with less dramatic support from women.
A Morgan poll in September 2019 found support for Australian nuclear power had attained a narrow majority, with 51% in favour when reduction of carbon emissions was cited. This was an increase of 16 percentage points from July 2011.[179]
A February 2024 poll published by the Sydney Morning Herald found that 36% supported Nuclear power in Australia, 27% were open to it, 23% were opposed and 15% were Undecided.[180]
An April 2024 Essential Research poll found that 52% supported Australia developing nuclear power plants, 31% opposed and 17% unsure.[181][182]
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear power plants. Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators in some space probes such as Voyager 2. Reactors producing controlled fusion power have been operated since 1958, but have yet to generate net power and are not expected to be commercially available in the near future.
A nuclear power plant (NPP), also known as a nuclear power station (NPS), nuclear generating station (NGS) or atomic power station (APS) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity. As of September 2023, the International Atomic Energy Agency reported that there were 410 nuclear power reactors in operation in 32 countries around the world, and 57 nuclear power reactors under construction.
State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom, also known as Rosatom State Nuclear Energy Corporation,, or Rosatom State Corporation, is a Russian state corporation headquartered in Moscow that specializes in nuclear energy, nuclear non-energy goods and high-tech products. It was established in 2007 and comprises more than 350 enterprises, including scientific research organizations, a nuclear weapons complex, and the world's only nuclear icebreaker fleet.
The anti-nuclear movement is a social movement that opposes various nuclear technologies. Some direct action groups, environmental movements, and professional organisations have identified themselves with the movement at the local, national, or international level. Major anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Peace Action, Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service. The initial objective of the movement was nuclear disarmament, though since the late 1960s opposition has included the use of nuclear power. Many anti-nuclear groups oppose both nuclear power and nuclear weapons. The formation of green parties in the 1970s and 1980s was often a direct result of anti-nuclear politics.
In the United States, nuclear power is provided by 94 commercial reactors with a net capacity of 97 gigawatts (GW), with 63 pressurized water reactors and 31 boiling water reactors. In 2019, they produced a total of 809.41 terawatt-hours of electricity, which accounted for 20% of the nation's total electric energy generation. In 2018, nuclear comprised nearly 50 percent of US emission-free energy generation.
As of 2024, Finland has five operating nuclear reactors in two power plants, all located on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Nuclear power provided about 35% of the country's electricity generation in 2022. The first research nuclear reactor in Finland was commissioned in 1962 and the first commercial reactor started operation in 1977. The fifth reactor started operation in April 2023.
Thomas Richard Kenyon is a former Australian politician who represented the South Australian House of Assembly seat of Newland for the Labor Party from the 2006 election until his defeat in 2018. Kenyon left the Labor Party in 2021 to found the Family First Party.
Nuclear power construction costs have varied significantly across the world and over time. Large and rapid increases in costs occurred during the 1970s, especially in the United States. Recent cost trends in countries such as Japan and Korea have been very different, including periods of stability and decline in construction costs.
Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal, hydro, solar and wind. As of November 2023, India has 23 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 8,180 MW. Nuclear power produced a total of 48 TWh in 2023, contributing around 3% of total power generation in India. 11 more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 8,700 MW.
The anti-nuclear movement in the United States consists of more than 80 anti-nuclear groups that oppose nuclear power, nuclear weapons, and/or uranium mining. These have included the Abalone Alliance, Clamshell Alliance, Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Nevada Desert Experience, Nuclear Information and Resource Service, Physicians for Social Responsibility, Plowshares Movement, United Steelworkers of America (USWA) District 31, Women Strike for Peace, Nukewatch, and Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Some fringe aspects of the anti-nuclear movement have delayed construction or halted commitments to build some new nuclear plants, and have pressured the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to enforce and strengthen the safety regulations for nuclear power plants. Most groups in the movement focus on nuclear weapons.
Nuclear weapons testing, uranium mining and export, and nuclear power have often been the subject of public debate in Australia, and the anti-nuclear movement in Australia has a long history. Its origins date back to the 1972–1973 debate over French nuclear testing in the Pacific and the 1976–1977 debate about uranium mining in Australia.
Nuclear power in the European Union accounted for approximately 26% of total electricity production in 2019 and nearly half of low-carbon energy production across the EU.
The nuclear power debate is a long-running controversy about the risks and benefits of using nuclear reactors to generate electricity for civilian purposes. The debate about nuclear power peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, as more and more reactors were built and came online, and "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies" in some countries. In the 2010s, with growing public awareness about climate change and the critical role that carbon dioxide and methane emissions plays in causing the heating of the Earth's atmosphere, there was a resurgence in the intensity of the nuclear power debate.
Ukraine operates four nuclear power plants with 15 reactors located in Volhynia and South Ukraine. The total installed nuclear power capacity is over 13 GWe, ranking 7th in the world in 2020. Energoatom, a Ukrainian state enterprise, operates all four active nuclear power stations in Ukraine. In 2019, nuclear power supplied over 20% of Ukraine's energy.
Thorium-based nuclear power generation is fueled primarily by the nuclear fission of the isotope uranium-233 produced from the fertile element thorium. A thorium fuel cycle can offer several potential advantages over a uranium fuel cycle—including the much greater abundance of thorium found on Earth, superior physical and nuclear fuel properties, and reduced nuclear waste production. One advantage of thorium fuel is its low weaponization potential. It is difficult to weaponize the uranium-233 that is bred in the reactor. Plutonium-239 is produced at much lower levels and can be consumed in thorium reactors.
Benjamin "Ben" Heard is a South Australian environmental consultant and an advocate for nuclear power in Australia, through his directorship of environmental NGO, Bright New World.
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission is a Royal Commission into South Australia's future role in the nuclear fuel cycle. It commenced on 19 March 2015 and delivered its final report to the Government of South Australia on 6 May 2016. The Commissioner was former Governor of South Australia, Kevin Scarce, a retired Royal Australian Navy Rear-Admiral and chancellor of the University of Adelaide. The Commission concluded that nuclear power was unlikely to be economically feasible in Australia for the foreseeable future. However, it identified an economic opportunity in the establishment of a deep geological storage facility and the receipt of spent nuclear fuel from prospective international clients.
David Noonan is an Australian environmentalist and member of the anti-nuclear movement in Australia. Noonan is a former anti-nuclear campaigner for the Australian Conservation Foundation, and has been a prominent spokesperson during campaigns against the expansion of uranium mining in Australia and against the establishment of nuclear waste storage facilities. He has a science degree and a Masters in Environmental Studies.
The nuclear industry in South Australia is focused on uranium mining, milling and the export of uranium oxide concentrate for use in the production of nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants. The state is home to the world's largest known single deposit of uranium, which is worked by BHP at the Olympic Dam mine.
Dr Ian Duncan is a businessman active in the Australian resources sector. He is a past president of operations at the Olympic Dam mine in South Australia under Western Mining Corporation. He was Chairman of the London-based Uranium Institute in 1995-1996. From the 1990s to the present, Duncan has advocated for nuclear industrial development in Australia, specifically the development of facilities to store and dispose of nuclear waste and the legalization and development of nuclear power plants for the generation of electricity. He is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Technology, Science and Engineering (ATSE), the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM), and Engineers Australia.
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1 2 McLeod (2010) [1995]. "8. Resistance to Nuclear Technology: Optimists, Opportunists and Opposition in Australian Nuclear History". In Bauer, Martin (ed.). Resistance to New Technology: Nuclear Power, Information Technology and Biotechnology. Cambridge University Press. pp.171–173. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511563706.009. ISBN978-0-511-56370-6. OCLC958548419.
↑ "Climate Emergency FAQ". FUSION: Science, Pirate, Secular, Climate Emergency. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
↑ Dr Margaret wallington (2011). "Prof David Ross Wigg obiturary". Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists. Archived from the original on 12 March 2014. Retrieved 16 December 2014.
↑ "Nuclear energy Archives". essentialreport.com.au. Essential Research. Archived from the original on 2 June 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2024. Support for nuclear energy (trend) - Q. To what extent do you support or oppose Australia developing nuclear power plants for the generation of electricity?
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