Spencer Gulf

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Spencer Gulf
Spencer Gulf.jpg
Location of Spencer Gulf in Australia
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Spencer Gulf
Australia relief map.jpg
Red pog.svg
Spencer Gulf
Location South Australia
Coordinates 34°25′S136°45′E / 34.417°S 136.750°E / -34.417; 136.750
Type Gulf
Part of Great Australian Bight
Basin  countries Australia

The Spencer Gulf is the westernmost and larger of two large inlets (the other being Gulf St Vincent) on the southern coast of Australia, in the state of South Australia, facing the Great Australian Bight. It spans from the Cape Catastrophe and Eyre Peninsula in the west to Cape Spencer and Yorke Peninsula in the east.

Contents

The largest towns on the gulf are Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Port Pirie, and Port Augusta. Smaller towns on the gulf include Tumby Bay, Port Neill, Arno Bay, Cowell, Port Germein, Port Broughton, Wallaroo, Port Hughes, Port Victoria, Port Rickaby, Point Turton, and Corny Point.

History

The first recorded exploration of the gulf was that of Matthew Flinders in February 1802. Flinders navigated inland from the present location of Port Augusta to within 44–39 km (27–24 mi) of the termination of the water body. [1]

The gulf was named Spencer's Gulph by Flinders on 20 March 1802, after George John Spencer, the 2nd Earl Spencer. [2] The Baudin expedition visited the gulf after Flinders with Nicholas Baudin giving it the name Golfe Bonaparte and Louis de Freycinet using the name Golfe de la Melomanie on the expedition's published charts. [3]

By the 1830s, the natural harbour of Port Lincoln had become the site of an unofficial settlement, due in part to its convenience as a base for whaling vessels – which had long operated in the Great Australian Bight. Prior to the selection of Adelaide, some consideration was given to Port Lincoln as the potential site of a capital city.[ citation needed ]

Geography and topography

The Gulf is 77 km (48 mi) wide at its mouth (from Cape Catastrophe to Cape Spencer) and 320 km (200 mi) long (from its mouth to Port Augusta). The western shore of the gulf is the Eyre Peninsula, while the eastern side is the Yorke Peninsula, which separates it from the smaller Gulf St Vincent. Its entrance was defined by Matthew Flinders in 1802 as a line from Cape Catastrophe on Eyre Peninsula to Cape Spencer on Yorke Peninsula. [2] At the time of Flinders' exploration the gulf was noted to extend 298 km (185 mi) inland from a point near the Port Augusta crossing. [1] This so-called extension of the gulf consists of a land depression and occasional watercourse known as the Pirie–Torrens corridor, and the inland waterbody Lake Torrens.

The northern end of the gulf is spanned by the Joy Baluch AM Bridge between Port Augusta and Port Augusta West and further north by Yorkey Crossing.

Informal names for subdivisions of the gulf waters are sometimes used. "Northern Spencer Gulf" refers to waters north of Wallaroo and Arno Bay, while "Southern Spencer Gulf" refers to waters south of that line, extending to the mouth of the gulf. "Upper Spencer Gulf" includes the waters north of Port Pirie, and includes the three towns sometimes referred to as the Iron Triangle: Whyalla, Port Augusta and Port Pirie. Its boundary lacks precise definition.

Wildlife

The world's largest known breeding aggregation of giant cuttlefish occurs in Spencer Gulf. Sepia apama 2.jpg
The world's largest known breeding aggregation of giant cuttlefish occurs in Spencer Gulf.
Little penguins breed on islands in Spencer Gulf. Lipson Island Conservation Fairy Penguin.jpg
Little penguins breed on islands in Spencer Gulf.

The land surrounding the gulf, consisting of the Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas, is the Eyre Yorke Block bioregion. This was originally wooded shrubland but has now mainly been cleared for agriculture. The arid Gawler bioregion extends to the Spencer Gulf on the north-west. Many of South Australia's iconic marine species can be found on the shores and in the waters of Spencer Gulf.

Marine species

The rocky inshore reef along the coast near Port Bonython and Point Lowly is a breeding ground for the Northern Spencer Gulf population of Australian giant cuttlefish. [4] [5] [6] They are a favorite food of local bottlenose dolphins, who have developed sophisticated techniques for safely eating these creatures. [7] The Upper Spencer Gulf is also known for its snapper and Yellowtail kingfish fishing. [8] Great white sharks are sometimes seen in Spencer Gulf by fishermen, and shark cage diving and surface tours operate out of Port Lincoln.

A relic population of tiger pipefish ( Filicampus tigris ), a subtropical species is range limited to Northern Spencer Gulf. [9]

Marine mammals

Visiting southern right whales and humpback whales enter Spencer Gulf from June through to October, and can be seen as far north as Point Lowly and Port Augusta. [10] New Zealand fur seals and Australian sea lions can be found in southern Spencer Gulf, with significant breeding colonies located at Dangerous Reef and in the Sir Joseph Banks Group. Occasional sightings occurring in Northern Spencer Gulf. Bottlenose dolphins can be seen in the gulf's waters year-round.

Seabirds

Breeding colonies of little penguins exist on islands in Spencer Gulf. The northernmost colonies are located at Lipson Island and Wardang Island. In 2004, the Wardang Island colony's population was approximately 8,000 penguins. [11] Cape Barren geese and several species of cormorants also breed on islands in Spencer Gulf.

Islands

Spencer Gulf contains a number of inshore and offshore islands. These include (from north to south):

Port development proposals

Due to its proximity to many identified mineral deposits in South Australia's Far North, Eyre Peninsula and Braemar regions, there are multiple new port and harbour developments proposed for the region.

These include new or expanded facilities at (from north to south):

Seawater desalination plants

In 2022, the government of South Australia announced the Northern Water Supply Project, which as of 2023, is considering a business case for establishing a large seawater desalination plant in the upper Spencer Gulf. If constructed, water will be supplied for use to the Olympic Dam and Carapateena copper mines in the state's far north. [21] It is also intended to supply water for a prospective hydrogen export industry. An environmental impact statement for the project is anticipated mid-2024. [22]

As of 2016, one reverse osmosis and one thermal seawater desalination plant draw water from Spencer Gulf. Several others are planned. All currently or will produce water primarily or exclusively for industrial use. They are:

LocationCompanyProduction capacity (GL/year)PurposeStatus
Whyalla Arrium 1.6 Whyalla Steelworks industrial supplyCommissioned 2011, operating [23]
Port Augusta Sundrop Farms 3Growing vegetables Operational in October 2016 [24] [25] [26] [27]
Point Lowly BHP 100 Olympic Dam mine mineral processingApproved 2011, not constructed [28]
Upper Spencer Gulf (multiple candidate sites under consideration) SA Water 94.9Olympic Dam mine, Carapateena mine, hydrogen productionNorthern Water Supply Project business case under development in 2023 [29]
Lipson Cove Centrex Metals 5-20For iron ore slurry pipelineProposed 2013, [30] not constructed
Myponie Point Braemar Alliance 20 [31] -50 [32] For iron ore slurry pipelineConcept stage [31] [32] [33]

Spencer Gulf in film & video

The Spencer Gulf region, its wildlife and its development are the subjects of a documentary film in production (as of 2020) entitled Cuttlefish Country. [34]

Protected areas

Reserves declared by the South Australian government

Aquatic Reserves

Spencer Gulf contains four aquatic reserves.

Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank Aquatic Reserve which is located in west side of Spencer Gulf, north of Whyalla, was declared in 1980 'for fisheries management, protection of its mangrove-seagrass communities and associated fish nursery areas.' [35] [36]

Goose Island Aquatic Reserve which is located at Goose Island on the east side of Spencer Gulf near Port Victoria was d eclared in 1971 to provide 'a conservation area where teaching institutions may conduct classes and scientific research on marine biology and ecology and to protect the habitat of the seal colony situated on White Rocks.' [35] [37]

Whyalla - Cowleds Landing Aquatic Reserve which is located on the west side of Spencer Gulf, just south of Whyalla, was declared in 1980 to 'protect the mangrove-seagrass communities and associated fish nursery areas.' [35] [38]

Yatala Harbour Upper Spencer Gulf Aquatic Reserve which is located in Yatala Harbour on the east side of Spencer Gulf, north of Port Pirie, was declared in 1980 for 'the protection of its mangrove-seagrass communities and associated fish nursery areas.' [35] [39]

Marine Parks

Spencer Gulf contains five marine parks, each with its own outer boundary and internal zoning. Fishing is prohibited with Sanctuary Zones, and detailed maps and GPS coordinates for the parks are available from the Government of South Australia's Department of Environment, Water & Natural Resources. [40]

The marine parks within Spencer Gulf are (from north to south):

Terrestrial reserves

A number of terrestrial reserves either adjoin Spencer Gulf at low water or are located on islands within the gulf. On the west coast of the gulf, from north to south, they are Munyaroo Conservation Park, Franklin Harbor Conservation Park, Lipson Island Conservation Park, Tumby Island Conservation Park, Sir Joseph Banks Group Conservation Park, Lincoln National Park and Memory Cove Wilderness Protection Area. On the east coast of the gulf, from north to south, they are Winninowie Conservation Park, Bird Islands Conservation Park, Goose Island Conservation Park, Leven Beach Conservation Park and Innes National Park. At the mouth of the gulf, the Gambier Islands Conservation Park is located within the Gambier Islands group.

Non-statutory arrangements

Important Bird Areas

Three Important Bird Areas (IBAs) have been nominated by BirdLife International at locations in Spencer Gulf. The Spencer Gulf Important Bird Area lies along the north-eastern coast of the Gulf; it comprises a 460 square kilometres (180 square miles) strip of coastal land consisting mainly of intertidal mudflats, mangroves and salt marshes. It was identified as an IBA by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of waders, or shorebirds. The other two IBAs within Spencer Gulf are located in the Sir Joseph Banks Group and at Goose Island. Both sites contain breeding colonies of various island seabird species. [45]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protected areas of South Australia</span> Areas protected by legislation in South Australia

Protected areas of South Australia, consisting of protected areas located within South Australia and its immediate onshore waters and which are managed by South Australian Government agencies. As of 2018, South Australia contained 359 separate protected areas declared under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972, the Crown Land Management Act 2009 and the Wilderness Protection Act 1992. Together, they cover a total land area of 211,387.48 km2 (81,617.16 sq mi) or 21.5% of the state's area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lincoln National Park</span> Protected area in South Australia

Lincoln National Park is a protected area in the Australian state of South Australia located about 249 kilometres (155 mi) west of the state capital of Adelaide and about 9.5 kilometres (5.9 mi) south of the municipal seat of Port Lincoln. It consists of a mainland area on the Jussieu Peninsula on the south eastern tip of Eyre Peninsula and a number of nearby islands. The national park contains significant sites of natural, indigenous and early European heritage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whyalla</span> City in South Australia

Whyalla is a city in South Australia. It was founded as "Hummocks Hill", and was known by that name until 1916. It is the fourth most populous city in the Australian state of South Australia after Adelaide, Mount Gambier and Gawler and along with Port Pirie and Port Augusta is one of the three towns to make up the Iron Triangle. As of June 2018, Whyalla had an urban population of 21,742, having declined at an average annual rate of -0.75% year-over-year over the preceding five years. It is a seaport located on the east coast of the Eyre Peninsula and is known as the "Steel City" due to its integrated steelworks and shipbuilding heritage. The port of Whyalla has been exporting iron ore since 1903.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port Lincoln</span> City in South Australia

Port Lincoln is a city on the Lower Eyre Peninsula in the Australian state of South Australia. Known as Galinyala by the traditional owners, the Barngarla people, it is situated on the shore of Boston Bay, which opens eastward into Spencer Gulf. It is the largest city in the West Coast region, and is located approximately 280 km (170 mi) as the crow flies from the state's capital city of Adelaide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yorke Peninsula</span> Region in South Australia

The Yorke Peninsula, known as Guuranda by the original inhabitants, the Narungga people, is a peninsula located northwest and west of Adelaide in South Australia, between Spencer Gulf on the west and Gulf St Vincent on the east. The peninsula is separated from Kangaroo Island to the south by Investigator Strait.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eyre Peninsula</span> Place in South Australia

The Eyre Peninsula is a triangular peninsula in South Australia. It is bounded by the Spencer Gulf on the east, the Great Australian Bight on the west, and the Gawler Ranges to the north.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port Broughton, South Australia</span> Town in South Australia

Port Broughton is a small South Australian town located at the northern extent of the Yorke Peninsula on the east coast of Spencer Gulf. It is situated about 170 km north-west of Adelaide, and 56 km south of Port Pirie. At the 2016 census, the town of Port Broughton had a population of 1,034.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tumby Bay, South Australia</span> Town in South Australia

Tumby Bay is a coastal town situated on the Spencer Gulf, on the eastern coast of Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, 45 kilometres (28 mi) north of Port Lincoln. The town of Tumby Bay is the major population centre of the District Council of Tumby Bay, and the centre of an agricultural district farming cereal crops and sheep, as well as having established fishing and tourism industries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port Neill, South Australia</span> Town in South Australia

Port Neill is a small coastal town on the eastern side of the Eyre Peninsula, in South Australia about 3 km off the Lincoln Highway between the major towns of Whyalla and Port Lincoln. It is 576 km by road from Adelaide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Investigator Strait</span> Body of water in South Australia

Investigator Strait is a body of water in South Australia lying between the Yorke Peninsula, on the Australian mainland, and Kangaroo Island. It was named by Matthew Flinders after his ship, HMS Investigator, on his voyage of 1801–1802. It is bordered by the Gulf St Vincent in the northeast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port Bonython</span> Suburb of City of Whyalla, South Australia

Port Bonython is the location of a deepwater port, gas fractionation plant and diesel storage facility west of Point Lowly in the Upper Spencer Gulf region of South Australia. It lies 16 km east-northeast of Whyalla, South Australia and approximately 370 km north-west of the State's capital city, Adelaide. The existing wharf is 2.4 kilometres long and is capable of berthing small Capesize ships with a maximum capacity of 110,000 tonnes. The wharf was established in 1982 and named after John Bonython, the founding chairman of Santos. The structure is leased to Santos by the Government of South Australia and is used for the export of hydrocarbon products. An oil spill at Port Bonython in 1992 resulted in loss of bird life and damage to mangrove habitats to the west and southwest of Port Pirie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lucky Bay, South Australia</span> Town in South Australia

Lucky Bay is a locality in the District Council of Franklin Harbour, on the Spencer Gulf coast of Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. It is a terminus for SeaSA's Spencer Gulf passenger ferry and a transshipping port for grain export operated by T-Ports. Lucky Bay is located immediately north-east of the Franklin Harbour wetlands. Its adjacent waters lie within the outer boundary of the Franklin Harbor Marine Park. A ferry service crossing Spencer Gulf from Lucky Bay to Wallaroo commenced in 2006, and the dirt road connecting Lucky Bay with the Lincoln Highway was sealed in 2008.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Point Lowly</span> Suburb of Whyalla, South Australia

Point Lowly is the tip of a small peninsula north north-east of Whyalla in the Upper Spencer Gulf region of South Australia. The wider peninsula is shared by a combination of defence, industrial, residential, recreational and tourism interests. Port Bonython lies immediately to the north-west and is marked for future industrial expansion, driven by anticipated growth in the State's mining industry. The icons of the peninsula are the historic Point Lowly Lighthouse and the mass breeding aggregation of Australian giant cuttlefish which occurs inshore each winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Point Lowly Lighthouse</span> Lighthouse

The Point Lowly lighthouse was constructed in 1883 to guide ships safely through Spencer Gulf en route to Port Augusta and Port Pirie in South Australia. It was upgraded several times before being deactivated in 1993. It was reactivated in 1995 and is a tourist attraction for the Whyalla area and an icon of the Point Lowly area.

Cape Hardy is a 20 m (66 ft) high, dune-capped granite headland on the eastern coast of Eyre Peninsula and which protrudes into Spencer Gulf in South Australia. It is located between the towns of Port Neill and Tumby Bay, 10 km (6.2 mi) north-northeast of Lipson Cove.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jussieu Peninsula</span> Place in South Australia

Jussieu Peninsula is a peninsula located at the south east end of Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. It is bounded by Proper Bay and Spalding Cove within the natural harbour known as Port Lincoln to the north, Spencer Gulf to the east and the Great Australian Bight to the south. While it was first explored and mapped by Matthew Flinders during February 1802, Flinders did not name it. In 1913, the name proposed by François Péron and Louis de Freycinet from Baudin's expedition when it visited later in 1802 was declared as the peninsula's official name by the Government of South Australia. Jussieu refers to the French botanist, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. While parts of its surface have been cleared and used for agricultural purposes in the past, it is currently occupied by two protected areas: the Lincoln National Park and the Memory Cove Wilderness Protection Area.

In South Australia, one of the states of Australia, there are many areas which are commonly known by regional names. Regions are areas that share similar characteristics. These characteristics may be natural such as the Murray River, the coastline, desert or mountains. Alternatively, the characteristics may be cultural, such as common land use. South Australia is divided by numerous sets of regional boundaries, based on different characteristics. In many cases boundaries defined by different agencies are coterminous.

Hardwicke Bay is a bay in the Australian state of South Australia located on the west coast of Yorke Peninsula in Spencer Gulf.

Fitzgerald Bay is a large bay located between Point Lowly and Backy Point in South Australia's upper Spencer Gulf. The bay's shoreline consists mostly of pebble beaches and sparse grey mangroves. In the 2000s the bay was used for the farming of yellowtail kingfish until their closure circa 2011 in response to high levels of fish mortality. Understanding of the environmental impacts of yellowtail kingfish farming is limited. As of 2021, fish farming has not returned to Fitzgerald Bay, but aquaculture zones remain in place, and Clean Seas is authorised to restock fish farms there. There are approximately forty shacks and coastal homes sparsely distributed along the fringe of Fitzgerald Bay whose interests are represented by the Cultana Jenkins Shackowners' Association.

References

  1. 1 2 "Spencer's Gulf". The Edinburgh Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary ... 5. A. Constable and Company: 713. 1822 – via Harvard University. Spencer's Gulf, a large gulf on the south coast of New Holland, which extends 185 miles into the interior of the country, in a direction north-north-east. The entrance of the gulf from Cape Catastrophe on the west, and Cape Spencer on the east, is 48 miles wide. It was explored to within seven or eight leagues of its termination by captain Flinders, who then saw land at a distance before him. Cape Spencer lies in Long. 136. 55. E. Lat. 35. 18. S.
  2. 1 2 Flinders, Matthew (1966) [1814]. A Voyage to Terra Australis : undertaken for the purpose of completing the discovery of that vast country, and prosecuted in the years 1801, 1802, and 1803 in His Majesty's ship the Investigator, and subsequently in the armed vessel Porpoise and Cumberland Schooner; with an account of the shipwreck of the Porpoise, arrival of the Cumberland at Mauritius, and imprisonment of the commander during six years and a half in that island (Facsimile ed.). Adelaide: Libraries Board of South Australia. p. 249. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
  3. ↑ Manning, Geoffrey. "South Australian Names - T" (PDF). Manning Index of South Australian History. State Library of South Australia. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  4. ↑ "Cross-dressing cuttlefish to sex up tourism". www.adelaide.edu.au.
  5. ↑ Sepia apama: the giant Australian cuttlefish
  6. ↑ "Whyalla Cuttlefish". whyallacuttlefish.com. Archived from the original on 2008-11-20.
  7. ↑ "Catch cuttlefish, drain off the ink, then fillet. Serves five" . independent.co.uk. 31 January 2009. Archived from the original on 2022-05-24.
  8. ↑ Snapper Fishing Archived 2008-12-08 at the Wayback Machine
  9. ↑ Occurrence search results - Filicampus tigris - Tiger Pipefish Atlas of Living Australia. Accessed 2013-12-24.
  10. ↑ Ladgrove, Petria "Whales spotted at Port Augusta" ABC North & West, 2010-07-06. Accessed 2013-12-24.
  11. ↑ Wiebken, A. Conservation Priorities for Little Penguin Populations in Gulf St Vincent Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine SARDI, South Australia (2011–06). Retrieved 2014-01-26.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Royal Australian Navy Hydrographic Service Hydrographic Department (1983). Port Lincoln and approaches (chart no. Aus 134).
  13. ↑ South Australian Government - Major Development Proposals "Port Bonython Bulk Export Facility near Whyalla" Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  14. ↑ "Whyalla's extended harbor opens gate to China for iron ore" The Advertiser (2013-07-29) Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  15. ↑ Flinders Ports South Australia "Iron ore boost in sight for Port Pirie" Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  16. ↑ "Regional Development Australia Fund - Round 2 Project Fact Sheet - Lucky Bay Harbor Extension" Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  17. ↑ "Big plans in the pipeline" Yorke Peninsula Country Times (2013-10-01) Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  18. ↑ South Australian Government - Major Development Proposals "Cape Hardy deep sea port" Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  19. ↑ South Australian Government - Major Development Proposals "Sheep Hill deep water port facility (Stage 1) on Eyre Peninsula" Retrieved 2013-11-05.
  20. ↑ "New grain port given go ahead, but concerns remain for penguin colony". ABC News. 5 May 2022.
  21. ↑ Spence, Andrew (2022-02-15). "Miners back Spencer Gulf desal plant push". InDaily. Retrieved 2023-02-28.
  22. ↑ "Premier keen to get cracking on SA desalination plant". Yahoo News. Retrieved 2023-03-30.
  23. ↑ "Desalination plant commissioned at Onesteel Whyalla" Osmoflo (2011-12-02). Retrieved 2014-01-29.
  24. ↑ Condliffe, Michael Reilly and Jamie. "A solar-powered farm is using seawater to grow tomatoes in the desert". technologyreview.com.
  25. ↑ "£120m state-of-the-art-tomato farm opens in Australia - Farmers Weekly". fwi.co.uk. 6 October 2016.
  26. ↑ "First farm to grow veg in a desert using only sun and seawater". New Scientist. 2016-10-06.
  27. ↑ "Council Development Assessment Panel Agenda - Meeting #123" (PDF). Port Augusta City Council. 2014-08-12. Retrieved 2014-10-23.
  28. ↑ "Olympic Dam expansion EIS overview information sheet" BHP (2009-04-08). Retrieved 2014-01-29.
  29. ↑ Project, Northern Water Supply (2022-10-17). "Northern Water Supply Project". Northern Water Supply Project. Retrieved 2023-02-28.
  30. ↑ EPBC Act > Referral Detail > Centrex Metals Port Spencer Department of Environment, Government of Australia (2012-10-18). Retrieved 2014-01-2
  31. 1 2 "Razorback project returns a positive PFS" Royal Resources (2013-01-30). Retrieved 2014-01-29.
  32. 1 2 Russell, Christopher (2011-07-08). "Gulf desal in $7bn iron mine plans for Braemar iron ore province". The Advertiser. Retrieved 2014-12-03.
  33. ↑ "Regional Mining and Infrastructure Planning project - Yorke and MidNorth/Braemar Interim report maps" (PDF). Deloitte. 2013. Retrieved 2014-12-03.
  34. ↑ Cuttlefish Country IMDb Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  35. 1 2 3 4 "Summary of SA Marine Protected Areas by Type (see 'SA Reserve List' tab)". Australian Government - Department of the Environment. 10 February 2003. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  36. ↑ Primary Industries and Regions South Australia (PIRSA) (2007), Aquatic Reserve: Blanche Harbour (PDF), Primary Industries and Regions South Australia, archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-05
  37. ↑ Primary Industries and Regions South Australia (PIRSA) (2007), Aquatic Reserve: Goose Island (PDF), Primary Industries and Regions South Australia, archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-05
  38. ↑ Primary Industries and Regions South Australia (PIRSA) (2007), Aquatic Reserve: Cowleds Landing (PDF), Primary Industries and Regions South Australia, archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-05
  39. ↑ Primary Industries and Regions South Australia (PIRSA) (2007), Aquatic Reserve: Yatala Harbour (PDF), Primary Industries and Regions South Australia
  40. ↑ Marine Parks, Department of Environment, Water & Natural Resources, Government of South Australia
  41. ↑ "Upper Spencer Gulf marine park zones". Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
  42. 1 2 "Franklin Harbor". Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
  43. ↑ "Sir Joseph Banks Group Marine Park". Department of Environment, Government of South Australia . Retrieved 6 December 2013.
  44. ↑ "Southern Spencer Gulf". Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Government of South Australia . Retrieved 6 December 2013.
  45. ↑ Dutson, Guy; Garnett, Stephen; Gole, Cheryl (October 2009). Australia's Important Bird Areas, Key sites for bird conservation (PDF). Birds Australia. p. 33. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
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