Australia and weapons of mass destruction

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Australia does not possess weapons of mass destruction, although it has participated in extensive research into nuclear, biological and chemical weapons in the past.

Contents

Australia chairs the Australia Group, an informal grouping of countries that seek to minimise the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapon proliferation. All states participating in the Australia Group are parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological Weapons Convention, and strongly support efforts under those Conventions to rid the world of chemical and biological weapons. [1] As with chemical and biological weapons, Australia does not possess nuclear weapons and is not at all known to be seeking to develop them.

Biological weapons

Australia has advanced research programs in immunology, microbiology and genetic engineering that support an industry providing vaccines for domestic use and export. [2] It also has an extensive wine industry and produces microorganisms on an industrial scale to support other industries including agriculture, food technology and brewing. The dual-use nature of these facilities mean that Australia, like any country with advanced biotechnological industries, could easily produce biological warfare agents. The Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness in Geelong, Victoria is researching the Ebola virus. [3] The Australian Microbial Resources Research Network lists 37 culture collections, many of which hold samples of pathogenic organisms for legitimate research purposes. [4]

History

In the wake of the Japanese advance through South East Asia during World War II, the secretary of the Australian Department of Defence, F.G. Shedden, wrote to Macfarlane Burnet on 24 December 1946 and invited him to attend a meeting of top military officers to discuss biological warfare. [5]

In September 1947, Burnet was invited to join the chemical and biological warfare subcommittee of the New Weapons and Equipment Development Committee and subsequently prepared a secret report titled "Note on War from a Biological Angle". [6] In 1951 the subcommittee recommended that "a panel reporting to the chemical and biological warfare subcommittee should be authorised to report on the offensive potentiality of biological agents likely to be effective against the local food supplies of South-East Asia and Indonesia". [5]

The activities of the chemical and biological warfare subcommittee were scaled back soon after, as Prime Minister Robert Menzies was more interested in trying to acquire nuclear weapons. [5] Australia signed the Biological Weapons Convention on 10 April 1972 and deposited a certificate of ratification on 5 October 1977. [7]

Chemical weapons

An observer examining an unexploded 25 pound gas shell following a trial of gas weapons at Singleton, New South Wales in 1943. Gas shell (AWM 028467).jpg
An observer examining an unexploded 25 pound gas shell following a trial of gas weapons at Singleton, New South Wales in 1943.

Australia conducted extensive research into chemical weapons during World War II. Although Australia has never produced chemical weapons, it did stockpile chemical weapons sourced from the United States and Britain. [8] Chemical weapons known to have been stockpiled included mustard gas, phosgene, lewisite, adamsite and CN gas.

Some of the stockpiled weapons in the form of mortar and artillery shells, aerial bombs and bulk agents were sent to New Guinea for potential use against Japanese tunnel complexes. [8] No actual use of the weapons was made although there were many trials using 'live' chemical weapons (such as shown in the adjacent picture).

After World War II, the chemical weapons were disposed of by burning, venting (for phosgene) or by dumping at sea. Some 21,030 tons of chemical weapons were dumped in the seas off Australia near Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. This has been covered in a Defence report by Geoff Plunkett. A complete history of Australia's involvement with chemical weapons – titled Chemical Warfare in Australia – has been published in book form by the Army History Unit (Defence Department) in 2013 (2nd Edn) Again it is authored by Geoff Plunkett .

A stockpile of 1,000 pound phosgene bombs was discovered at Embi Airfield, Papua in 1970 and disposed of by Australian Army personnel, and, up to 1990, drums of mustard gas were still being discovered in the bush where they had been tested. [8] Another stockpile of chemical weapons was discovered at Maxwelton, Queensland in 1989. [5] Australia signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in January 1993 and ratified it with the Chemical Weapons (Prohibition) Act in 1994. [8]

Nuclear weapons

Operation Hurricane, a 25kt nuclear test, Monte Bello Islands, Australia Op hurricane.jpg
Operation Hurricane, a 25kt nuclear test, Monte Bello Islands, Australia

Australia does not currently have nuclear weapons and has never had its own nuclear weapons, although several federal governments have investigated the idea and conducted research into the question. [9] Australia investigated acquiring tactical nuclear weapons from the United Kingdom or the United States as early as 1956 when Athol Townley, Minister for Air, wrote to Philip McBride, Minister for Defence, recommending the acquisition of tactical nuclear weapons to arm Australia's English Electric Canberra bombers and CAC Sabre fighters. [10] [11] [12]

Air Chief Marshal Frederick Scherger and Minister for Air Athol Townley supported acquiring nuclear weapons, both for international prestige and because of the small size of the country's military. While Scherger's British and American counterparts were encouraging, the Macmillan and Eisenhower governments were not. Prime Minister Robert Menzies' government decided that domestic production would be too difficult due to cost and international politics. [13]

Australia hosted British nuclear testing in Monte Bello Islands (Operation Hurricane), Emu Field and Maralinga between 1952 and 1963. Maralinga was developed as a joint facility with a shared funding arrangement. [14] During the 1950s, Australia participated in the development of the Blue Streak missile, a Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) intended for delivery of a nuclear warhead.

The Australian HIFAR nuclear reactor at Lucas Heights, Sydney, operated from 1958 to 2006 and has now been replaced by the OPAL reactor in 2006. The new reactor is designed to use low-enriched uranium fuel and an open pool light water system. [15]

Australia has substantial deposits of uranium which account for 30% of the world's known reserves. [16] Until 1996 government policy restricted exploitation of uranium deposits to three established mines. A fourth site at Four Mile uranium mine was approved in July 2009. [17] Current policy is to develop the export potential of Australia's uranium industry by allowing mining and export of uranium under strict international agreements designed to prevent nuclear proliferation. [18]

Although the RAAF continued to occasionally investigate obtaining nuclear weapons during the 1960s, [13] Australia signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on 27 February 1970 and ratified the treaty on 23 January 1973. [19] Sir Philip Baxter first head of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC), now the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) and first Vice Chancellor of the University of New South Wales openly advocated Australia acquiring a weapons grade plutonium stockpile and thus nuclear weapons. [20]

During the 1970s and 1980s, ANSTO scientists developed centrifuge enrichment technology, claimed to be comparable with the commercial URENCO centrifuge technology of the time. Such technology, if deployed on an industrial scale, would have been capable in principle of producing highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons. The research lost government funding in the mid-1980s. [21]

A commercial-scale enrichment plant would also be capable of producing sufficient highly enriched uranium for a nuclear weapons program. An Australian company has been actively developing a novel process for uranium enrichment, Separation of Isotopes by Laser Excitation (SILEX). [22]

The Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, began a study in 2006 into the issues surrounding an increase in Australia's uranium usage. [23] Amongst the topics of the study were a domestic uranium enrichment plant for supplying low-enriched fuel for nuclear power reactors, either domestic or foreign.

Australia is considered a nuclear threshold state. [24]

In 2019, Hugh White, a military strategist, called for Australia to have nuclear weapons. [25] [26] [27] [28]

Delivery platforms

An Australian F-111 RAAF F111.jpg
An Australian F-111

Like virtually every other developed nation and most larger developing nations, Australia has weapons systems which could be used to deliver nuclear weapons to its neighbours, if nuclear weapons were developed. [29] The Royal Australian Air Force has 60 F-35A Lightning II strike fighters (72 total on order) and 24 F/A-18F Super Hornet strike fighters.

Australia previously operated the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk ground-attack aircraft and the English Electric Canberra and General Dynamics F-111C bombers, which were theoretically capable of delivering nuclear weapons, and F-111G tactical bombers which converted from United States Air Force FB-111A strategic nuclear bombers. 75 F/A-18A/B Hornets were also operated until their retirement in 2021. Prior to the delivery of the F-111C, Australia briefly operated the McDonnell Douglas F-4E leased from the United States Air Force, standard Block 43/44 models capable of delivering nuclear weapons.

As part of Air Staff Requirement (Operational Requirement/Air) 36 for bomber aircraft in the 1950s, the Royal Australian Air Force specified a requirement for "an offensive tactical strike capability" and "strategic defence of Australia" with targets "as far north as the Kra Peninsula". The bomber was required to have a range of not less than 4,000 nautical miles (7,400 km) and be capable of carrying at least 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) of conventional bombs or one BLUE DANUBE nuclear weapon (which had been air dropped at Maralinga on 11 October 1956). [30] Locally manufactured versions of the Avro Vulcan or Handley Page Victor nuclear bombers were some of the options considered.

Ballistic & Advanced Missiles

ATACMS Precision Strike Missile SCIFiRE Cruise Missile Naval Strike Missile (NSM) M57A1 Army Tactical Missile System missile.jpg
ATACMS
Precision Strike Missile Premier tir du PrSM, 10 decembre 2019.jpg
Precision Strike Missile
SCIFiRE Cruise Missile Northrop Grumman SCIFIRE.jpg
SCIFiRE Cruise Missile
Naval Strike Missile (NSM) Naval Strike Missile launch.png
Naval Strike Missile (NSM)

Ballistic Missiles: ATACMS & PrSM

Australia's Defence Strategic Review, released in 2023, highlights the need for Australia to possess a long-range strike capability. In response, Australia agreed to purchase 22 M142 HIMARS systems. [31] These systems are capable of firing simple artillery munitions, which Australia will produce on its own soil, however, Australia has agreed to buy various MGM-140 ATACMS missiles for its HIMARS launchers. [32] These ATACMS missiles are declared short-range ballistic missiles. These missiles have already been tested on Australian soil as part of Operation Talisman Sabre. [32] Following this, Australia has signed a deal with Lockheed Martin Australia to manufacture the Precision Strike Missile, the successor to the ATACMS, and a more advanced Ballistic missile. [33]

Hypersonic Missiles: SCIFiRE & Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM)

Australia and the United States signed the SCIFiRE deal in 2020. SCIFiRE is the successor to the HIFiRE program, and aims to develop a Mach 5-8 cruise missile for the United States Armed Forces and the Australian Defence Force. [34] The developing missile is named Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile. The missile is expected to have a range of around 1,900kms, [35] which would amount to the longest range missile Australia would possess, following the Precision Strike Missile at about 500-1000kms and the Tomahawk at 1,500kms. Australia is said to harness this missile in the next 2-7 years. [36]

Australia plans to procure the Naval Strike Missile, the NSM is a subsonic multi-purpose cruise missile that has anti-ship and land-attack capabilities. [37] The NSM is manufactured by Swedish company Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace, and is the base model of the Joint Strike Missile. Australia is acquiring the Naval Strike Missile to replace the ageing and increasingly obsolete Harpoon anti ship missile. [38] The NSM will also be capable of being air launched, via Australia's three squadrons of the F-35A. [39] The missile will have a range of 100nm (185km). [40]

Long Range Anti-Ship Missile

The Long Range Anti-Ship Missile (LRASM) is a stealth air-launched cruise missile that is used for anti-ship purposes. The LRASM is manufactured by Lockheed Martin, on behalf of DARPA. The Royal Australian Air Force plans to buy up to 200 of the missiles to be launched from the fleet of F-35A s in Australia's possession. [41] Lockheed Martin Australia is also pitching the ship-launched variant (LRASM-SL) for the fleet of Hobart-class destroyers as well as the Anzac-class and Hunter-class frigates. [41]

Polling

In 2010 Lowy Institute poll asked If some of Australia’s near neighbours were to begin to develop nuclear weapons, would you then be personally in favour or against Australia also developing nuclear weapons?

It found that 16% were in favour (4% strongly in favour, 12% somewhat in favour) while 84% were against (63% strongly against, 21% somewhat against). [42]

In 2022, the Lowy Institute performed another poll on Australians’ support for nuclear weapons. It found 11% strongly in favour and 25% somewhat in favour, for a total of 36% in favour (an increase from the 2010 poll), while 24% were somewhat against and 39% were strongly against acquiring nuclear weapons. [43]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ballistic missile</span> Missile that follows a sub-orbital ballistic flightpath

A ballistic missile (BM) is a type of missile that uses projectile motion to deliver warheads on a target. These weapons are powered only during relatively brief periods—most of the flight is unpowered. Short-range ballistic missiles (SRBM) typically stay within the Earth's atmosphere, while most larger missiles are exo-atmospheric. The largest ICBMs are capable of full orbital flight. These weapons are in a distinct category from cruise missiles, which are aerodynamically guided in powered flight and thus restricted to the atmosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Korea and weapons of mass destruction</span>

North Korea has a military nuclear weapons program and, as of June 2023, is estimated to have an arsenal of approximately 30 nuclear weapons and sufficient production of fissile material for six to seven nuclear weapons per year. North Korea has also stockpiled a significant quantity of chemical and biological weapons. In 2003, North Korea withdrew from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). Since 2006, the country has conducted six nuclear tests at increasing levels of expertise, prompting the imposition of sanctions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MGM-140 ATACMS</span> American tactical ballistic missile

The MGM-140 Army Tactical Missile System is a tactical ballistic missile designed and manufactured by the US defense company Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV), and later Lockheed Martin through acquisitions. It uses solid propellant, is 13 feet (4.0 m) high and 24 inches (610 mm) in diameter, and the longest range variants can fly up to 190 miles (300 km). The missiles can be fired from the tracked M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) and the wheeled M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States and weapons of mass destruction</span>

The United States is known to have possessed three types of weapons of mass destruction: nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. The U.S. is the only country to have used nuclear weapons on another country, when it detonated two atomic bombs over two Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. It had secretly developed the earliest form of the atomic weapon during the 1940s under the title "Manhattan Project". The United States pioneered the development of both the nuclear fission and hydrogen bombs. It was the world's first and only nuclear power for four years, from 1945 until 1949, when the Soviet Union produced its own nuclear weapon. The United States has the second-largest number of nuclear weapons in the world, after the Russian Federation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction</span>

The United Kingdom possesses, or has possessed, a variety of weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. The United Kingdom is one of the five official nuclear weapon states under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The UK renounced the use of chemical and biological weapons in 1956 and subsequently destroyed its general stocks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China and weapons of mass destruction</span>

The People's Republic of China has developed and possesses weapons of mass destruction, including chemical and nuclear weapons. The first of China's nuclear weapons tests took place in 1964, and its first hydrogen bomb test occurred in 1966 at Lop Nur. Tests continued until 1996, when the country signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), but did not ratify it. China acceded to the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1984 and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1997.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Israel and weapons of mass destruction</span>

Israel has weapons of mass destruction, and to be one of four nuclear-armed countries not recognized as a Nuclear Weapons State by the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The US Congress Office of Technology Assessment has recorded Israel as a country generally reported as having undeclared chemical warfare capabilities, and an offensive biological warfare program. Officially, Israel neither confirms nor denies possessing nuclear weapons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canada and weapons of mass destruction</span>

Canada has not officially maintained and possessed weapons of mass destruction since 1984 and, as of 1998, has signed treaties repudiating possession of them. Canada ratified the Geneva Protocol in 1930 and the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty in 1970.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">India and weapons of mass destruction</span>

India possesses nuclear weapons and previously developed chemical weapons. Although India has not released any official statements about the size of its nuclear arsenal, recent estimates suggest that India has 164 nuclear weapons and has produced enough weapons-grade plutonium for up to 200 nuclear weapons. In 1999, India was estimated to have 800 kilograms (1,800 lb) of separated reactor-grade plutonium, with a total amount of 8,300 kilograms (18,300 lb) of civilian plutonium, enough for approximately 1,000 nuclear weapons. India has conducted nuclear weapons tests in a pair of series namely Pokhran I and Pokhran II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction</span>

Pakistan is one of nine states that possess nuclear weapons. Pakistan began developing nuclear weapons in January 1972 under Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who delegated the program to the Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) Munir Ahmad Khan with a commitment to having the device ready by the end of 1976. Since PAEC, which consisted of over twenty laboratories and projects under reactor physicist Munir Ahmad Khan, was falling behind schedule and having considerable difficulty producing fissile material, Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgist working on centrifuge enrichment for Urenco, joined the program at the behest of the Bhutto administration by the end of 1974. Producing fissile material was pivotal to the Kahuta Project's success and thus to Pakistan obtaining the capability to detonate a nuclear weapon by the end of 1984.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Africa and weapons of mass destruction</span>

From the 1960s to the 1990s, South Africa pursued research into weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons under the apartheid government. South Africa’s nuclear weapons doctrine was designed for political leverage rather than actual battlefield use, specifically to induce the United States of America to intervene in any regional conflicts between South Africa and the Soviet Union or its proxies. To achieve a minimum credible deterrence, a total of six nuclear weapons were covertly assembled by the late 1980s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iran and weapons of mass destruction</span>

Iran is not known to currently possess WMD and has signed treaties repudiating the possession of WMDs including the Biological Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons Convention, and the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Iran has first-hand knowledge of WMD effects—over 100,000 Iranian troops and civilians were victims of chemical weapons during the 1980s Iran–Iraq War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom</span> 3rd country to develop nuclear weapons

In 1952, the United Kingdom became the third country to develop and test nuclear weapons, and is one of the five nuclear-weapon states under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naval Strike Missile</span> Anti-ship or land attack cruise missile

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">AGM-158 JASSM</span> American low observable air-launched cruise missile

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear weapons and Israel</span> Israels possible control of nuclear weapons

The State of Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons. Estimates of Israel's stockpile range between 90 and 400 nuclear warheads, and the country is believed to possess the ability to deliver them in several methods, including by aircraft, as submarine-launched cruise missiles, and via the Jericho series of intermediate to intercontinental range ballistic missiles. Its first deliverable nuclear weapon is thought to have been completed in late 1966 or early 1967; which would make it the sixth country in the world to have developed them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bulgaria and weapons of mass destruction</span>

Bulgaria has developed weapons of mass destruction, most notably chemical weapons. Chemical weapons production was concentrated in Smyadovo. As of 2016, Bulgaria does not possess any weapons of mass destruction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joint Strike Missile</span> Norwegian/American air-launched cruise missile

The Joint Strike Missile (JSM) is a multi-role, air-launched cruise missile under development by the Norwegian company Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace and American company Raytheon Missiles & Defense. The JSM is derived from the Naval Strike Missile.

This timeline of nuclear weapons development is a chronological catalog of the evolution of nuclear weapons rooting from the development of the science surrounding nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. In addition to the scientific advancements, this timeline also includes several political events relating to the development of nuclear weapons. The availability of intelligence on recent advancements in nuclear weapons of several major countries is limited because of the classification of technical knowledge of nuclear weapons development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AGM-158C LRASM</span> American stealthy anti-ship cruise missile

The AGM-158C LRASM is a stealth air launch anti-ship cruise missile developed for the United States Air Force and United States Navy by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Derived from the AGM-158B JASSM-ER, the LRASM was intended to pioneer more sophisticated autonomous targeting capabilities than the U.S. Navy's current Harpoon anti-ship missile, which has been in service since 1977.

References

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  3. ↑ "Ebola virus research". www.csiro.au. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  4. ↑ "Culture Collections". Australian Microbial Resources Research Network. Archived from the original on 22 February 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2006.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Bromage, David (2002). "Australia: Biological weapons". Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on 17 May 2006. Retrieved 18 April 2006.
  6. ↑ Nicholson, Brendan (10 March 2002). "Burnet's solution: The plan to poison S-E Asia". Melbourne: The Age. Archived from the original on 8 April 2006. Retrieved 18 April 2006.
  7. ↑ "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction". Australian Government Publishing Service. Retrieved 18 April 2006.
  8. 1 2 3 4 "Australia: Chemical weapons". Federation of American Scientists. 2 September 2002. Archived from the original on 8 July 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2006.
  9. ↑ Broinowski, Richard (2003). Fact or Fission?. Scribe Publications. ISBN   1-920769-03-X.
  10. ↑ National Archives of Australia, Department of Defence; A5954 1400/15 Re-equipment of RAAF Bomber and Fighter Squadrons with atomic weapons, 1956
  11. ↑ National Archives of Australia, Department of Defence; A1209 1957/4067 Nuclear Weapons for the Australian Forces, 1956–1958
  12. ↑ National Archives of Australia, Prime Minister's Department; A1945 186/5/3 Procurement of nuclear weapons for Australian forces, 1957
  13. 1 2 Lax, Mark (2010). From Controversy to Cutting Edge: A History of the F-111 in Australian Service. Canberra, Australia: Air Power Development Centre, Department of Defence (Australia). pp. 11–12. ISBN   9781920800543.
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  24. ↑ "Nuclear Weapons Archive, 7.5 nuclear capable states".
  25. ↑ "Hugh White calls for rekindling of nuclear weapons debate". ABC Radio. 2 July 2019. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
  26. ↑ Alexander, Harriet (1 July 2019). "Nuclear arsenal must be on Australia's agenda, argues defence expert". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
  27. ↑ "The Australian".
  28. ↑ "Analyst flags the prospect of a nuclear-armed Australia as China's rise continues". ABC News. July 2019.
  29. ↑ "50th Anniversary of the ANZUS Treaty". United States Australian Embassy. Archived from the original on 17 July 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2006.
  30. ↑ National Archives of Australia, Department of Defence; A1945 1/501/694 PART 1 Royal Australian Air Force. Air staff requirement (Operational Requirement/Air 36). Bomber aircraft., 1954 – 1958
  31. ↑ "Australia inks Lockheed Martin deal to build guided missiles at home". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
  32. 1 2 "US fires ATACMS during Talisman Sabre 2023 - Australian Defence Magazine". www.australiandefence.com.au. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
  33. ↑ "Australia inks Lockheed Martin deal to build guided missiles at home". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
  34. ↑ www.nationaldefensemagazine.org https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2023/2/17/aukus-partners-aim-to-catch-china-in-hypersonics-race . Retrieved 21 April 2024.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  35. ↑ Tegler, Eric. "Is DoD's Approach To Buying Hypersonic Weapons Too Expensive?". Forbes. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  36. ↑ Kay, Linda (2 September 2021). "Boeing, Lockheed Win SCIFiRE Hypersonic Weapons Preliminary Design Contracts". Defense World. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  37. ↑ "NSM – Naval Strike Missile – Missile Systems - KONGSBERG". www.kongsberg.com. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  38. ↑ Perrett, Bradley (20 July 2023). "Why is Australia buying so many different types of strike missiles?". The Strategist. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  39. ↑ "Naval Strike Missile (NSM)". Naval Technology. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  40. ↑ Vavasseur, Xavier (19 December 2023). "UK Royal Navy Declares IOC with Naval Strike Missile". Naval News. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  41. 1 2 Felton, Ben (21 May 2022). "Up to 200 LRASM for RAAF with potentially more for RAN". Naval News. Retrieved 21 April 2024.
  42. ↑ "Nuclear weapons in Australia".
  43. ↑ "Acquiring nuclear weapons - Lowy Institute Poll".

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