Nuclear power in Russia

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Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant RIAN archive 344288 Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant near St.Petersburg.jpg
Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant

Russia is one of the world's largest producers of nuclear energy. In 2020 total electricity generated in nuclear power plants in Russia was 215.746 TWh, 20.28% of all power generation. [1] The installed gross capacity of Russian nuclear reactors is 29.4 GW in December 2020.

Contents

Recent history

In accord with legislation passed in 2001, all Russian civil reactors are operated by Energoatom. More recently in 2007 Russian Parliament adopted the law "On the peculiarities of the management and disposition of the property and shares of organizations using nuclear energy and on relevant changes to some legislative acts of the Russian Federation", which created Atomenergoprom - a holding company for all Russian civil nuclear industry, including Energoatom, nuclear fuel producer and supplier TVEL, uranium trader Tekhsnabexport (Tenex) and nuclear facilities constructor Atomstroyexport.

Global status of nuclear deployment as of 2017 (source: see file description) .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Operating reactors, building new reactors Nuclear power station.svg
Global status of nuclear deployment as of 2017 (source: see file description)
  Operating reactors, building new reactors

The overnight cost of construction in the seventies was a low 800 $/kW in 2016 dollars. [2] In 2019 a S&P Global Ratings report stated Russia's nuclear construction costs were well below European levels because of vertical integration, good learning-curve effects from serial production, and the large currency devaluation of 2014. [3]

The Russian nuclear industry employs around 200,000 people. [4] Russia is recognized for its nuclear disaster expertise and for the safety of its technology. Statements made in review of Russian reactor safety [8] that "Requirements on placing the nuclear installation should not contain additional restrictions in comparison with other industrial facilities," suggest that nuclear plants could be placed within cities and are not considered to pose exceptional dangers. [5] [6] [7] [8] Russia is also pursuing an ambitious plan to increase sales of Russian-built reactors overseas, [9] and had 39 reactors under construction or planned overseas as of 2018. [10]

The VVER-1200 pressurised water reactor is the system currently offered for construction, being an evolution of the VVER-1000 with increased power output to about 1200 MWe (gross) and providing additional passive safety features. [11] In August 2016 the first VVER-1200, Novovoronezh II-1, was connected to the grid. [12]

Through its membership in the multi-nation ITER project, Russia participates in the design of nuclear fusion reactors.

In 2013 the Russian state allocated 80.6 billion rubles ($2.4 billion) toward the growth of its nuclear industry, especially export projects where Russian companies build, own and operate the power station, such as the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant. [13]

In 2016 initial plans were announced to build 11 new nuclear power reactors by 2030, including the first VVER-600, a smaller two cooling circuit version of the VVER-1200, designed for smaller regions and markets. [14] Outline plans for near-surface disposal facilities for low and intermediate-level waste, and deep burial disposal facilities for high-level waste were also approved in the Krasnoyarsk Krai region. [14]

In October 2017 Rosatom was reported to be considering postponing commissioning new nuclear plants in Russia due to excess generation capacity and that new nuclear electricity prices are higher than for existing plant. The Russian government is considering reducing support for new nuclear under its support contracts, called Dogovor Postavki Moshnosti (DPM), which guarantee developers a return on investment through increased payments from consumers for 20 years. [15] In 2019 a S&P Global Ratings report stated that "We expect domestic nuclear capacity to increase only moderately because electricity demand in Russia is stagnating, given only modest GDP growth, a significant potential for energy savings, and the government's intention to avoid raising electricity prices through additional increases in capacity payments". [3]

Russia's first-floating nuclear power plant, Akademik Lomonosov, is equipped to provide power to a remote Russian town on the Bering Strait. The nuclear unit features small modular reactors (SMRs) technology. [16]

Nuclear power reactors

Reactors in operation

class=notpageimage|
Nuclear power plants in Russia (view)
Green pog.svg  Active plants
Black pog.svg  Closed plants
Purple pog.svg  Unfinished plants
Blue pog.svg  Plants under construction

Eleven of Russia's reactors are of the RBMK 1000 type, similar to the one at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Some of these RBMK reactors were originally to be shut down but have instead been given life extensions and uprated in output by about 5%. Critics say that these reactors are of an "inherently unsafe design", which cannot be improved through upgrades and modernization, and some reactor parts are impossible to replace. Russian environmental groups say that the lifetime extensions "violate Russian law, because the projects have not undergone environmental assessments". [17]

Control room of a VVER-1000 in 2009, Kozloduy Unit 5 Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant - Control Room of Unit 5.jpg
Control room of a VVER-1000 in 2009, Kozloduy Unit 5
Main article: Nuclear power in Russia
See also: List of cancelled nuclear reactors in Russia
Plant
name		Unit
No.		TypeModelStatusCapacity
(MW)		Begin
building		Commercial
operation		Closed
Akademik Lomonosov 1 PWR KLT-40S Operational3215 Apr 200719 Dec 2019 [18]
2 PWR KLT-40S Operational3215 Apr 200719 Dec 2019
Balakovo 1 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Dec 198023 May 1986
2 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Aug 198118 Jan 1988
3 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Nov 19828 Apr 1989
4 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Apr 198422 Dec 1993
Beloyarsk 1 LWGR AMB-100Shut down1021 Jun 195826 Apr 19641 Jan 1983
2LWGRAMB-200Shut down1461 Jan 19621 Dec 19691 Jan 1990
3 SFR BN-600 Operational5601 Jan 19691 Nov 1981
4 SFR BN-800 Operational78918 Jul 200610 Dec 2015
5 SFR BN-1200 Planned1100
Bilibino 1LWGR EGP-6 Shut down111 Jan 19701 Apr 197414 Jan 2019
2LWGR EGP-6 Operational111 Jan 19701 Feb 1975
3LWGR EGP-6 Operational111 Jan 19701 Feb 1976
4LWGR EGP-6 Operational111 Jan 19701 Jan 1977
Kalinin 1 PWR VVER-1000/V-338Operational9501 Feb 197712 Jun 1985
2 PWR VVER-1000/V-338Operational9501 Feb 19823 Mar 1987
3 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Oct 19858 Nov 2005
4 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Aug 198625 Dec 2012
Kaliningrad 1 PWR VVER-1200/V-491Under construction
(suspended) [19] 		110922 Feb 2012
2 PWR VVER-1200/V-491Planned1109
Kola 1 PWR VVER-440/V-230Operational4411 May 197028 Dec 1973
2 PWR VVER-440/V-230Operational4411 May 197021 Feb 1975
3 PWR VVER-440/V-213Operational4411 Apr 19773 Dec 1982
4 PWR VVER-440/V-213Operational4411 Aug 19766 Dec 1984
Kola II [19] [20] 1 PWR VVER-S-600Planned600(2028)(2034)
2 PWR VVER-S-600Planned600(2028)(2034)
Kostroma 1 PWR VVER-1200 Unfinished; restart planned13001979
2 PWR VVER-1200 Unfinished; restart planned13001979
3 PWR VVER-1200 Unfinished; restart planned13001979
4 PWR VVER-1200 Unfinished; restart planned13001979
Kursk 1 LWGR RBMK-1000 Shut down9251 Jun 197212 Oct 197719 Dec 2021
2 LWGR RBMK-1000 Shut down9251 Jan 197317 Aug 197931 Jan 2024 [21]
3 LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 Apr 197830 Mar 1984
4 LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 May 19815 Feb 1986
5 LWGR RBMK-1000 Unfinished9251985
6 LWGR RBMK-1000 Unfinished9251985
Kursk II 1 PWR VVER-TOI/V-510Under construction111529 Apr 2018
2 PWR VVER-TOI/V-510Under construction111515 Apr 2019 [22]
3 PWR VVER-TOIPlanned1115
4 PWR VVER-TOIPlanned1115
Leningrad 1 LWGR RBMK-1000 Shut down9251 Mar 19701 Nov 197421 Dec 2018 [23]
2 LWGR RBMK-1000 Shut down9251 Jun 197011 Feb 197610 Nov 2020
3 LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 Dec 197329 Jun 1980
4 LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 Feb 197529 Aug 1981
Leningrad II [24] 1 PWR VVER-1200/V-491Operational108525 Oct 200829 Oct 2018
2 PWR VVER-1200/V-491Operational108515 Apr 201022 Mar 2021
3 PWR VVER-1200Planned1085(2024) [25] (2030)
4 PWR VVER-1200Planned1085(2025)(2032)
MPEB No. 1 [26] [27] [28] 1 PWR RITM-200SUnder construction5330 Aug 2022 [29] (2027)
2 PWR RITM-200SUnder construction5330 Aug 2022 [29] (2027)
MPEB No. 21 PWR RITM-200SPlanned53(2022)(2027)
2 PWR RITM-200SPlanned53(2022)(2027)
MPEB No. 31 PWR RITM-200SPlanned53(2022)(2028)
2 PWR RITM-200SPlanned53(2022)(2028)
MPEB No. 41 PWR RITM-200SPlanned53(2022)(2031)
2 PWR RITM-200SPlanned53(2022)(2031)
Nizhny Novgorod 1 PWR VVER-1200 Planned1300
2 PWR VVER-1200 Planned1300
3 PWR VVER-1200 Planned1300
4 PWR VVER-1200 Planned1300
Novovoronezh 1 PWR VVER/V-210Shut down1971 Jul 195731 Dec 196416 Feb 1988
2 PWR VVER/V-365Shut down3361 Jun 196414 Apr 197029 Aug 1990
3 PWR VVER-440/V-179Shut down3851 Jul 196729 Jun 197225 Dec 2016
4 PWR VVER 440/V-179Operational3851 Jul 196724 Mar 1973
5 PWR VVER-1000/V-187Operational9501 Mar 197420 Feb 1981
Novovoronezh II 1 PWR VVER-1200/V-392MOperational111424 Jun 200827 Feb 2017
2 PWR VVER-1200/V-392MOperational111412 Jul 20096 Nov 2019
3 PWR VVER-1200Planned1175
4 PWR VVER-1200Planned1175
Obninsk 1LWGRAM-1Shut down51 Jan 19511 Dec 195429 Apr 2002
Rostov 1 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 Sep 198125 Dec 2001
2 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational9501 May 198310 Dec 2010
3 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational95015 Sep 200927 Dec 2014
4 PWR VVER-1000/V-320Operational101116 Jun 201028 Sep 2018
Sakha 1 PWR RITM-200NPlanned55(2024) [30] (2028)
Seversk 1 FBR BREST-300 Under construction2808 Jun 2021 [31] (2026)
South Urals 1 FBR BN-1200 Unfinished; restart planned11001982
2 FBR BN-1200 Unfinished; restart planned11001982
3 FBR BN-1200 Unfinished; restart planned11001982
Smolensk 1LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 Oct 197530 Sep 1983
2LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 Jun 19762 Jul 1985
3LWGR RBMK-1000 Operational9251 May 198412 Oct 1990
Smolensk II [32] [33] 1 PWR VVER-TOI Planned1300
2 PWR VVER-TOI Planned1300
Tatar 1 PWR VVER-1200 Unfinished; restart planned13001980
2 PWR VVER-1200 Unfinished; restart planned13001980

International projects

CountryNPP ReactorTypeMWe netMWe grossConstruction startCommercially operational
Bangladesh Ruppur-1 VVER-1200/523 1080 1200 2017-11-30 2024
Ruppur-2 VVER-1200/523 1080 1200 2018-07-14 2025
Belarus Belarusian-1 VVER-1200/491 1110 1194 2013-11-08 2021-06-10
Belarusian-2 VVER-1200/491 1110 1194 2014-06-03 2023
China Tianwan-1 VVER-1000/428 990 1060 1999-10-20 2007-05-17
Tianwan-2 VVER-1000/428 990 1060 2000-10-20 2007-08-16
Tianwan-3 VVER-1000/428М 1060 1126 2012-12-27 2018-02-14
Tianwan-4 VVER-1000/428М 1060 1126 2013-09-27 2018-12-22
Tianwan-7 VVER-1200/491 1100 1200 2021-05-19 2026
Tianwan-8 VVER-1200/491 1100 1200 2022-02-25 2027
Xudabao-3 VVER-1200/491 1100 1200 2021-07-28 2026
Xudabao-4 VVER-1200/491 1100 1200 2022-05-19 2027
Egypt El Dabaa-1 VVER-1200/529 1100 1200 2022-07-20
El Dabaa-2 VVER-1200/529 1100 1200 2022-11-19
El Dabaa-3 VVER-1200/529 1100 1200 2023-05-03
El Dabaa-4 VVER-1200/529 1100 1200 2024-01-23
Finland Hanhikivi-1 VVER-1200/AES-2006 1200 cancelled cancelled
India Kudankulam-1 VVER-1000/412 932 1000 2002-03-31 2014-12-31
Kudankulam-2 VVER-1000/412 932 1000 2002-07-04 2017-03-31
Kudankulam-3 VVER-1000/412 917 1000 2017-06-29 2025
Kudankulam-4 VVER-1000/412 917 1000 2017-10-23 2025
Kudankulam-5 VVER-1000/412 917 1000 2021-06-29 2027
Kudankulam-6 VVER-1000/412 917 1000 2021-12-20 2027
Iran Bushehr-1 VVER-1000/446 915 1000 1975-05-01 (1995) 2013-09-23
Bushehr-2 VVER-1000/446 915 1000 2016-09-10 2025
Bushehr-3 VVER-1000/446 915 1000 2016-09-10 2027
Turkey Akkuyu-1 VVER-1200/509 1114 1200 2018-04-03 2023
Akkuyu-2 VVER-1200/509 1114 1200 2020-04-08 2024
Akkuyu-3 VVER-1200/509 1114 1200 2021-03-10 2025
Akkuyu-4 VVER-1200/509 1114 1200 2022-07-21 2026
Ukraine Khmelnytskyi-3/4 VVER-1000/392B 950 1000 cancelled cancelled
Vietnam Ninh Thuan 1-1/2 VVER-1000/428 950 1000 cancelled cancelled
Ninh Thuan 1-3/4 VVER-1000/428 950 1000 cancelled cancelled

In addition Atomstroyexport challenging NPP projects list contains: [34]

In March 2022, Russian captured the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, now operated by Rosatom.

In August 2022, the Hungarian Nuclear Energy Authority authorized Rosatom to expand the nuclear power plant at Paks with two new VVER reactors with capacity of 1.2 gigawatts each. [36]

Nuclear engineering companies

Safety

Russia, responding to the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, will perform a 'stress test' on all its reactors "to judge their ability to withstand earthquakes more powerful than the original design anticipated". [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rosatom</span> Russian state-owned nuclear technologies company

Rosatom, also known as Rosatom State Nuclear Energy Corporation, the State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom, or Rosatom State Corporation, is a Russian state corporation headquartered in Moscow that specializes in nuclear energy, nuclear non-energy goods and high-tech products. It was established in 2007 and comprises more than 350 enterprises, including scientific research organizations, a nuclear weapons complex, and the world's only nuclear icebreaker fleet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kola Nuclear Power Plant</span>

The Kola Nuclear Power Plant, also known as Kolsk NPP or Kolskaya NPP, is a nuclear power plant located 12 km away from Polyarnye Zori, Murmansk Oblast in north-western Russia. If the floating nuclear power plant Akademik Lomonosov is excluded, it is the northernmost nuclear power plant housed in a fixed location structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">VVER</span> Soviet / Russian nuclear reactor type

The water-water energetic reactor (WWER), or VVER is a series of pressurized water reactor designs originally developed in the Soviet Union, and now Russia, by OKB Gidropress. The idea of such a reactor was proposed at the Kurchatov Institute by Savely Moiseevich Feinberg. VVER were originally developed before the 1970s, and have been continually updated. As a result, the name VVER is associated with a wide variety of reactor designs spanning from generation I reactors to modern generation III+ reactor designs. Power output ranges from 70 to 1300 MWe, with designs of up to 1700 MWe in development. The first prototype VVER-210 was built at the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Generation III reactor</span> Class of nuclear reactors with improved safety over its predecessors

Generation III reactors, or Gen III reactors, are a class of nuclear reactors designed to succeed Generation II reactors, incorporating evolutionary improvements in design. These include improved fuel technology, higher thermal efficiency, significantly enhanced safety systems, and standardized designs intended to reduce maintenance and capital costs. They are promoted by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Belene Nuclear Power Plant</span>

The Belene Nuclear Power Plant is an abandoned nuclear power plant 3 km from Belene and 11 km from Svishtov in Pleven Province, northern Bulgaria, near the Danube River. It was intended to substitute four VVER-440 V230 reactors of the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant that were decommissioned as a prerequisite for Bulgaria to join the European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Armenian Nuclear Power Plant</span> Nuclear power plant near Yerevan, Armenia

The Armenian Nuclear Power Plant (ANPP), also known as the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant, is the only nuclear power plant in the South Caucasus, located 36 kilometers west of Yerevan in Armenia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant</span> RBMK and VVER nuclear power plant in Sosnovy Bor, Leningrad Oblast, Russia

Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant ) is a nuclear power plant located in the town of Sosnovy Bor in Russia's Leningrad Oblast, on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland, some 70 kilometres (43 mi) to the west of the city centre of Saint Petersburg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant</span> Nuclear power plant in India

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant is the largest nuclear power station in India, situated in Kudankulam in the Tirunelveli district of the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Construction on the plant began on 31 March 2002, but faced several delays due to opposition from local fishermen. KKNPP is scheduled to have six VVER-1000 reactors built in collaboration with Atomstroyexport, the Russian state company and Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL), with an installed capacity of 6,000 MW of electricity.

Russian floating nuclear power station Type of ship

Floating nuclear power stations are vessels designed by Rosatom, the Russian state-owned nuclear energy corporation. They are self-contained, low-capacity, floating nuclear power plants. Rosatom plans to mass-produce the stations at shipbuilding facilities and then tow them to ports near locations that require electricity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kursk Nuclear Power Plant</span> Russian nuclear power plant

The Kursk Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant located in western Russia on the bank of the Seym River about 40 kilometers west of the city of Kursk. The nearby town of Kurchatov was founded when construction of the plant began. The plant feeds the grid for Kursk Oblast and 19 other regions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant</span> Russian Nuclear Plant

The Novovoronezh nuclear power station is a nuclear power station close to Novovoronezh in Voronezh Oblast, central Russia. The power station was vital to the development of the VVER design: every unit built was essentially a prototype of its design. On this site is built the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant</span> Nuclear power plant located in Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province, China

Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant (NPP) on the coast of the Yellow Sea, approximately 30 kilometers east of downtown Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province, China. The plant's owner is Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation, a joint venture with majority owner a subsidiary of China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC).

Atomstroyexport is the Russian Federation's nuclear power equipment and service exporter. It is a fully owned subsidiary of Rosatom. The activities of Atomstroyexport are financially supported by the Russian government. The President of ASE Group of Companies is Alexander Lokshin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Astravets Nuclear Power Plant</span> Nuclear power plant in Astravyets District, Belarus

The Astravets Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant located in the Astravyets District, Grodno Region in north-western Belarus. The power plant is built close to the Belarus-Lithuania border, being 40 kilometres (25 mi) east of the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius. The plant is powered by two 1194-MW VVER-1200 units supplied by Atomstroyexport, the nuclear equipment exporter branch of the Russian nuclear corporation Rosatom. The plant is owned by State Enterprise Belarusian NPP, which in turn is owned by the state-owned operator Belenergo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II</span> Nuclear power plant in Voronezh Oblast, Russia

Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II is a Russian nuclear power plant with two 1200 MW pressurized water reactors (VVER) located in Voronezh Oblast. The power plant is built on the same site as the present Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaliningrad Nuclear Power Plant</span>

The Kaliningrad Nuclear Power Plant (also referred as Baltic Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) or Baltiiskaya NPP, Russian: Калининградская атомная электростанция; Калининградская АЭС [] or Балтийская АЭС []) is a nuclear power plant under construction 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south-east of Neman, in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. It is seen as a counter-project to the (later scrapped) plan to build the Visaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania and is considered not only as an energy, but also as a geopolitical project. Originally intending to commission the reactors in 2016 and 2018, construction was temporarily stopped in June 2013 for the project to be redesigned for lower power output after neighbouring countries showed no interest in importing its electricity. However, the downgrade was later discarded. No export partners materialised as of 2021 and the project remains in stand-by.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smolensk Nuclear Power Plant</span> Nuclear power plant in Smolensk Oblast, Russia

Smolensk Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power station in Russia. It is located in the Smolensk region, in Desnogorsk province, approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Smolensk, 115 kilometres (71 mi) from Bryansk and 320 kilometres (200 mi) from Moscow. Smolensk Nuclear Power Plant is the biggest power generating station in the north-western region of the united energy system of the Russian Federation. Smolensk NPP has an outer appearance similar to that of Chernobyl NPP units 3-4, as both are later generation RBMKs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant</span> Nuclear power plant in the stage of commissioning in Turkey

The Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is a large nuclear power plant in Turkey under construction located in Akkuyu, Büyükeceli, Mersin Province. It is expected to generate around 10% of the country's electricity when completed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant</span> Under-construction nuclear power plant in Bangladesh

The Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant (Bengali: রূপপুর পারমাণবিক বিদ্যুৎকেন্দ্র) is a 2.4 GWe nuclear power plant project in Bangladesh. The nuclear power plant is being constructed at Rooppur of Ishwardi Upazila on the bank of the river Padma, 87 miles (140 km) west of Dhaka. It will be the country's first nuclear power plant, and the first of the two units is expected to go into operation in 2024. The VVER-1200/523 Nuclear reactor and critical infrastructures are being built by the Russian Rosatom State Atomic Energy Corporation. In the main construction period, the total number of employees will reach 12,500, including 2,500 specialists from Russia. It is expected to generate around 15% of the country's electricity when completed.

References

  1. ↑ "Rosatom State Atomiс Energy Corporation ROSATOM global leader in nuclear technologies nuclear energy". Archived from the original on 31 January 2021.
  2. ↑ USA. (1982). Technology and Soviet energy availability. Boulder (Colo.: Westview press. p. 126.
  3. 1 2 "State support pivotal to Russia's nuclear sector, says report". World Nuclear News. 12 July 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  4. ↑ "Nuclear rethink urged". The Moscow News. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original on 19 November 2011.
  5. ↑ "Benchmarking the global nuclear industry 2012 Heading for a fast recovery" (PDF). Ernst & Young. 11 October 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2014.[ permanent dead link ]
  6. ↑ "Rosatom today and overview of its current and prospective Nuclear Power Plant projects" (PDF). Rosatom. 21 August 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
  7. ↑ "International Standards of Safety and the Modern Projects of Nuclear Power Stations" (PDF). Rosatom. 4 November 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
  8. ↑ "Russia's efforts to improve safety following the Chernobyl and the Fukushima accidents" (PDF). IBRAE. 6 November 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
  9. ↑ Pulitzer Center On Crisis Reporting
  10. ↑ "Russia leads the world at nuclear-reactor exports". The Economist. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
  11. ↑ Nikolay Fil (26–28 July 2011). "Status and perspectives of VVER Status and perspectives of VVER nuclear power plants nuclear power plants" (PDF). OKB Gidropress. IAEA. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  12. ↑ "Russia connects Novovoronezh 6 reactor to grid". World Nuclear News. 5 August 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
  13. ↑ "Russia invests in nuclear". World Nuclear News. 20 December 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
  14. 1 2 "Russia to build 11 new nuclear reactors by 2030". World Nuclear News. 10 August 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
  15. ↑ "Rosatom considers delaying reactor commissioning". Nuclear Engineering International. 30 October 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
  16. ↑ "Rosatom's floating nuclear power unit arrives in Chukotka, Russia". Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis. 15 September 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
  17. ↑ Igor Koudrik and Alexander Nikitin (13 December 2011). "Second life: The questionable safety of life extensions for Russian nuclear power plants". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 25 March 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
  18. ↑ "Rosatom State Atomic Energy Cooperation | ROSATOM's first of a kind floating power unit connects to isolated electricity grid in Pevek, Russia's Far East". rosatom.ru. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  19. 1 2 "Nuclear Power in Russia | Russian Nuclear Energy – World Nuclear Association". world-nuclear.org. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
  20. ↑ "Кольскую АЭС-2 начнут строить в 2028 году" . Retrieved 9 December 2023.
  21. ↑ "Kursk's second unit retires after 45 years operation" . Retrieved 31 January 2024.
  22. ↑ "The construction of the 2nd innovative VVER-TOI power block at the Kursk NPP-2 site has started ahead of schedule". rosenergoatom.ru. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  23. ↑ "Russia retires Leningrad unit 1". World Nuclear News. World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 27 December 2018.
  24. ↑ "Four New NPP Units Will be Built in Russia".
  25. ↑ "Росатом планирует начать строительство второй очереди ЛАЭС-2 в 2024 году". tass.ru. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
  26. ↑ "Russia commits to further floating NPPs : New Nuclear – World Nuclear News". world-nuclear-news.org. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
  27. ↑ ""Росатом" и Kaz Minerals предварительно договорились о поставках электроэнергии для Баимского ГОКа". Interfax.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  28. ↑ "Russia plans new generation of FNPPS – Nuclear Engineering International".
  29. 1 2 "Заложен корпус первого плавучего энергоблока в арктическом исполнении на базе реакторов РИТМ-200 – Атомэнергомаш". aem-group.ru. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
  30. ↑ "В Якутии собираются строить АЭС мощностью не менее 55 МВт".
  31. ↑ ""Росатом" начал строительство реактора Брест-300 в Северске". 8 June 2021.
  32. ↑ "Russia prepares to build new nuclear reactors at Leningrad and Smolensk – Nuclear Engineering International".
  33. ↑ "VVER units planned for Leningrad and Smolensk".
  34. ↑ Challenging NPP Projects JSC ASE
  35. ↑ NPP JSC ASE (Jordan)
  36. ↑ "Hungary licenses two new reactors at Paks nuclear plant". Reuters . 27 August 2022.
  37. ↑ Matthew L. Wald (24 March 2011). "Russia Plans to Test Reactors For Ability to Survive Quakes". The New York Times.
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