Operation Cockpit

Last updated

Operation Cockpit
Part of the South-East Asian theatre of World War II
Sabang, Netherlands East Indies, under attack on 19 April 1944.jpg
Sabang under attack on 19 April 1944
Date19 April 1944
Location
Sabang, Dutch East Indies
5°53′39″N95°19′9″E / 5.89417°N 95.31917°E / 5.89417; 95.31917
Result Allied strategic failure
Belligerents
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom
Flag of the United States (1912-1959).svg  United States
Flag of Australia (converted).svg  Australia
Flag of New Zealand.svg  New Zealand
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands
Flag of Free France (1940-1944).svg  Free France 		Merchant flag of Japan (1870).svg  Japan
Commanders and leaders
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg James Somerville Merchant flag of Japan (1870).svg Hirose Sueto
Strength
2 aircraft carriers
3 battleships
1 battlecruiser
6 cruisers
15 destroyers
1 submarine		 Anti-aircraft batteries
3 torpedo bombers
Casualties and losses
1 aircraft destroyed 1 merchant vessel sunk
1 merchant vessel beached
Up to 24 aircraft destroyed on the ground
3 aircraft shot down

Operation Cockpit was an Allied attack against the Japanese-held island of Sabang on 19 April 1944. It was conducted by aircraft flying from British and American aircraft carriers and targeted Japanese shipping and airfields. A small number of Japanese ships and aircraft were destroyed, and one American aircraft was lost. While the attack was successful tactically, it failed to divert Japanese forces from other areas as had been hoped.

Contents

The attack on Sabang was the first of several carrier raids conducted by the British-led Eastern Fleet during 1944 and 1945. It sought to prevent the Japanese from transferring forces in the area to contest a planned American landing in New Guinea. Sabang's defenders were taken by surprise, and the attackers encountered little opposition. The Japanese did not react to the operation as the Eastern Fleet was not seen as a serious threat and their forces in the area were being preserved for use against an expected major American offensive in the Central Pacific. Nevertheless, the Allies were pleased with the results of the attack.

Background

From mid-1942 until early 1944 the Allies did not undertake any offensive naval operations in the Indian Ocean. Their main naval force there, the British-led Eastern Fleet which was headed by Admiral James Somerville, was weak. From January 1943 the fleet did not include any aircraft carriers and its three elderly battleships were transferred later in the year. [1] The remaining force was capable only of protecting Allied shipping. [2] Fortunately for the Allies, the Japanese did not attempt any large-scale operations in the Indian Ocean. This allowed the Eastern Fleet to focus on countering German and Japanese submarines and using its own submarines to raid Japanese shipping. [3]

The strategic situation in the Pacific in mid-April 1944. The red shaded area was controlled by the Allies and the remainder was controlled by Japan. 1944-04-15JapWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg
The strategic situation in the Pacific in mid-April 1944. The red shaded area was controlled by the Allies and the remainder was controlled by Japan.

At the Cairo Conference held during November 1943, the Allied leadership agreed that "the main effort against Japan should be made in the Pacific", and that the Indian Ocean would be a subsidiary theatre. It was also decided that any offensive operations, including carrier raids, in the theatre would have the goals of "maintaining pressure on the enemy, forcing dispersion of his forces, and attaining the maximum attrition of his air and naval forces and shipping". [4]

In January 1944 the Admiralty, the British Government institution responsible for administering the Royal Navy, decided to substantially reinforce the Eastern Fleet. [2] This had been made possible by the surrender of the Italian Navy in 1943, which removed one of the Royal Navy's main opponents and gave the Allies control over the Mediterranean Sea. [5] The reinforcements which were scheduled to arrive over the next four months comprised 146 warships, and included three battleships, two aircraft carriers, fourteen cruisers and large numbers of destroyers and other escort vessels. The first substantial group of reinforcements reached the Eastern Fleet's base at Ceylon on 27 January; these included the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious, battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and Valiant and battlecruiser HMS Renown. [2] Shortages of destroyers hindered the fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations until April, however, as priority needed to be given to escorting convoys. [6]

Also in early 1944, the Japanese military transferred its main naval striking force, the Combined Fleet, to Singapore. This was done to evacuate the fleet's bases in the central Pacific, which were now vulnerable to American attacks, and concentrate it at a location with good naval repair facilities and ready access to fuel. The Japanese did not intend any large-scale attacks into the Indian Ocean. The Allies were concerned about the Combined Fleet's intentions, and Somerville believed that his force would be unable to counter the fleet if it entered the Indian Ocean. As a result, additional Allied air units were dispatched to protect Ceylon. [7] The United States Navy also agreed to temporarily transfer the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga and three destroyers from the Pacific to augment the Eastern Fleet; this was done so that the British did not have to free up reinforcements for the Eastern Fleet by cancelling the planned Operation Tungsten carrier raid on the German battleship Tirpitz in Norway. [8] [9]

Sabang island lies off the northern end of Sumatra. The island was used as a base by the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies. [10] Its location at the northern entrance of the Strait of Malacca made it strategically important. [11] The IJN's 9th Base Force was the main unit stationed at Sabang, and was commanded by Rear Admiral Hirose Sueto from February 1944. [12] The British believed that the island's garrison comprised 9,000 personnel. [13]

Prelude

In late March the main body of the Eastern Fleet, including Illustrious, Renown, Queen Elizabeth and Valiant, sortied into the Indian Ocean. The main goals of what was designated Operation Diplomat were to search for Japanese ships following an unsuccessful cruiser raid and link up with Saratoga. The operation also provided an opportunity to practice operating the ships together and refuelling at sea ahead of the fleet commencing offensive operations. The British ships departed Ceylon on 21 March, refuelled from tankers between 24 and 26 March and rendezvoused with Saratoga on 27 March. The carriers' aircraft exercised together during the return voyage, and the fleet arrived back at Ceylon on 2 April. [14]

USS Saratoga at Hobart in March 1944 during her voyage to the Indian Ocean USS Saratoga at Hobart in March 1944.jpg
USS Saratoga at Hobart in March 1944 during her voyage to the Indian Ocean

The decision to attack Sabang was made in response to a request from the head of the US Navy, Admiral Ernest King. King asked that the Eastern Fleet undertake a raid in mid-April to prevent the Japanese from dispatching naval aircraft stationed in southern Malaya to attack the large Allied naval forces allocated to an amphibious landing at Hollandia in New Guinea on 22 April. [14] At a meeting on 12 April, the Eastern Fleet's senior officers decided to conduct a carrier raid on Sabang. [15] The plans for the operation also included a surface ship bombardment of Sabang, but it was decided to omit this shortly before the fleet departed as it was believed that operating close to the shore would be unduly risky. [15] [16] The raid was considered to be a trial, to test the fleet's procedures ahead of more ambitious operations. [17] During the first two weeks of April, the Eastern Fleet finalised its plans for the attack and rehearsed the operation. [18] This was to be the first aircraft carrier raid attempted by the Eastern Fleet. [19]

The Allies had little intelligence on the Japanese forces at Sabang, with holdings being limited to small numbers of aerial reconnaissance photographs. [10] It was believed that the island was strongly defended, with the Japanese having a radar station and an airfield there. [11] Somerville decided against further reconnaissance flights over the island due to the risk that they would alert the Japanese. [10] Intelligence gained from breaking German and Japanese codes contributed to the planning for Operation Cockpit by allowing the Allies to track the locations of enemy warships and air units in the region. The Far East Combined Bureau also developed a radio deception plan for the operation which proved successful. [6]

Despite the Allied intentions, the Japanese had little interest in engaging the Eastern Fleet. The IJN was aware that the fleet was too weak to pose a significant threat, and were preserving their forces, including the aircraft in southern Malaya, to contest the American advance through the central Pacific. The Combined Fleet was under orders to only engage the Eastern Fleet if it mounted a large scale attack. [20] Land based naval bombers were assigned to counter Allied naval forces in the Indian Ocean. [17]

Attack

Oil tanks, ships and port installations at Sabang on fire during the attack Raid on Sabang in northern Sumatra on 19 April 1944 (A 23249).jpg
Oil tanks, ships and port installations at Sabang on fire during the attack

The attack force sailed from the Eastern Fleet's main base at Trincomalee on 16 April, and was led personally by Somerville from Queen Elizabeth. [21] It comprised 27 warships from six navies; the historian H.P. Willmott has observed that Operation Cockpit was "perhaps the most cosmopolitan naval operation of the war". [18] [22] The Royal Navy contributed Illustrious, two battleships, one battlecruiser, four cruisers and seven destroyers. The American contingent comprised Saratoga and three destroyers. Other elements of the force included the recently-arrived French battleship Richelieu, Dutch cruiser HNLMS Tromp and a Dutch destroyer, the New Zealand cruiser HMNZS Gambia and four Australian destroyers. [21] The Allied ships were organised into two task forces; Task Force 69 was a battleship covering force comprising the three battleships, two cruisers and nine destroyers. Task Force 70 comprised the aircraft carriers, Renown, two cruisers and six destroyers. [10] The submarine HMS Tactician was also stationed near Sabang to rescue any airmen who were forced down during the attack. [19] This was the largest force the Eastern Fleet had been able to send into combat up to that point in the war. [17]

Each carrier had an air group made up of units from their parent navies. Illustrious embarked two squadrons equipped with 14 Vought F4U Corsair fighters each and two squadrons operating a total of 21 Fairey Barracuda torpedo and dive bombers. Saratoga's air group comprised a squadron with 26 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters, a squadron with 24 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers and a squadron operating 18 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers, as well as a single Hellcat allocated to the Air Group Leader. [23] The commander of Saratoga's air group, Commander Joseph C. Clifton, led both carriers' air wings during Operation Cockpit. [24]

After an uneventful journey, and without being detected by the Japanese, the Allied force arrived at the carriers' flying off point 100 miles (160 km) south-west of Sabang in the early hours of 19 April. The strike force began to be launched at 5:30 am; Illustrious dispatched 17 Barracudas and 13 Corsairs and Saratoga 24 Hellcats, 18 Dauntlesses and 11 Avengers. [21] Of the Hellcats, 16 were to escort the strike force and 8 attack Lho Nga airfield in northern Sumatra. [10] Clifton led the strike force while it was in the air. [25] A combat air patrol comprising four Corsairs and eight Hellcats was maintained over the fleet. [10]

Fires burning at Sabang airfield after it was attacked Sabang airfield under attack on 19 April 1944 (NNAM.1996.488.024.026).jpg
Fires burning at Sabang airfield after it was attacked

The attack on Sabang began at 7 a.m. Saratoga's aircraft arrived over the island at that time, and Illustrious' began their attack from a different direction a minute later. [21] The Allied bombers mainly attacked oil storage tanks, shipping and harbour installations. The fighters struck Sabang's airfield and Lho Nga airfield. Three of Sabang's four oil tanks were set on fire and the harbour installations were badly damaged. Few ships were in the area, though a merchant vessel was sunk and another driven aground. The fighter pilots claimed to have destroyed 21 Japanese aircraft at Sabang airfield and another three at Lho Nga. [19] The British pilots failed to engage a number of worthwhile targets of opportunity. [26]

The Japanese at Sabang were taken by surprise. Anti-aircraft batteries began firing on the Allied aircraft after the attack had commenced, and no Japanese fighters were encountered in the air. A Hellcat was shot down, and its pilot was rescued by Tactician while under fire from coastal artillery. [18] [27] [28] Clifton led a group of fighter aircraft which drove off a Japanese torpedo boat that was threatening the submarine during the rescue. [24] Eleven other American aircraft were damaged. [28]

As the Allied fleet withdrew, it was approached by three Japanese Mitsubishi G4M torpedo bombers. All were shot down by Hellcats about 50 miles (80 km) to the north-east of the ships. [18] [28] Allied warships fired on Japanese aircraft twice during the night of 19/20 April. Some of the destroyers also fired at what turned out to be an Allied Douglas DC-3 transport aircraft that was flying from Cocos Islands with its identification friend or foe system turned off. During a rain squall in the afternoon of 20 April Renown mistook the Australian destroyer HMAS Nepal for a Japanese vessel and briefly engaged it with her secondary armament. [29] The attack force returned to Ceylon on 21 April. [28]

Aftermath

The Allies were satisfied with the results of Operation Cockpit. [19] While it did not inflict heavy casualties on the Japanese, the Royal Navy learned useful lessons. [30] In particular, the British were impressed with the more efficient ways Saratoga's crew managed flying operations. [31] Clifton was made an honorary companion of the Distinguished Service Order for his role in the operation. [24] The attack had no effect on Japan's military strategy or deployments. The aircraft in southern Malaya remained there, and no changes were made to the plans to resist the Allied landings at Hollandia. [21] [32]

Shortly after the attack force reached Ceylon, Saratoga received orders to return to the United States for a refit. On Admiral King's suggestion, she and most of the other ships involved in Operation Cockpit conducted an attack on Soerabaya on her return journey. This raid, Operation Transom, was undertaken on 17 May. [33] [34] The Eastern Fleet made several other carrier raids during 1944, including a second attack on Sabang on 25 July designated Operation Crimson. [35] This operation involved two British aircraft carriers, and included a battleship bombardment of the island. [36]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cruiser</span> Type of large warships

A cruiser is a type of warship. Modern cruisers are generally the largest ships in a fleet after aircraft carriers and amphibious assault ships, and can usually perform several operational roles from search-and-destroy to ocean escort to sea denial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Eastern Solomons</span> World War II carrier battle in the Pacific Theater

The naval Battle of the Eastern Solomons took place on 24–25 August 1942 and was the third carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the second major engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the Guadalcanal campaign. As at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway, the ships of the two adversaries were never within sight of each other. Instead, all attacks were carried out by carrier-based or land-based aircraft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Philippine Sea</span> Major naval battle of World War II

The Battle of the Philippine Sea was a major naval battle of World War II on 19–20 June 1944 that eliminated the Imperial Japanese Navy's ability to conduct large-scale carrier actions. It took place during the United States' amphibious invasion of the Mariana Islands during the Pacific War. The battle was the last of five major "carrier-versus-carrier" engagements between American and Japanese naval forces, and pitted elements of the United States Navy's Fifth Fleet against ships and aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Mobile Fleet and nearby island garrisons. This was the largest carrier-to-carrier battle in history, involving 24 aircraft carriers, deploying roughly 1,350 carrier-based aircraft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of the Mediterranean</span> World War II naval campaign in the Mediterranean Sea

The Battle of the Mediterranean was the name given to the naval campaign fought in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II, from 10 June 1940 to 2 May 1945.

During World War II, at the beginning of the Pacific War in December 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was the third most powerful navy in the world, and the naval air service was one of the most potent air forces in the world. During the first six months of the war, the IJN enjoyed spectacular success inflicting heavy defeats on Allied forces, being undefeated in every battle. The attack on Pearl Harbor crippled the battleships of the US Pacific Fleet, while Allied navies were devastated during Japan's conquest of Southeast Asia. Japanese Navy aircraft operating from land bases were also responsible for the sinkings of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse which was the first time that capital ships were sunk by aerial attack while underway. In April 1942, the Indian Ocean raid drove the Royal Navy from South East Asia. After these successes, the Japanese now concentrated on the elimination and neutralization of strategic points from where the Allies could launch counteroffensives against Japan's conquests. However, at Coral Sea the Japanese were forced to abandon their attempts to isolate Australia while the defeat at Midway saw them forced on the defensive. The campaign in the Solomon Islands, in which the Japanese lost the war of attrition, was the most decisive; they had failed to commit enough forces in sufficient time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Berlin (Atlantic)</span> German commerce raid during the naval battles of the Second World War

Operation Berlin was a raid conducted by the two German Scharnhorst-class battleships against Allied shipping in the North Atlantic between 22 January and 22 March 1941. It formed part of the Battle of the Atlantic during World War II. The Scharnhorst and Gneisenau sailed from Germany, operated across the North Atlantic, sank or captured 22 Allied merchant vessels, and finished their mission by docking in occupied France. The British military sought to locate and attack the German battleships, but failed to damage them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Nordseetour</span> 1940 German naval raid

Operation Nordseetour was a raid conducted between 30 November and 27 December 1940 by the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper. It was part of the Battle of the Atlantic of World War II, with the ship seeking to attack Allied convoys in the North Atlantic. Admiral Hipper left Germany on 30 November 1940 and entered the Atlantic after evading British patrols. She had difficulty locating any convoys and was plagued by engine problems and bad weather. While returning to Brest in German-occupied France, Admiral Hipper encountered Convoy WS 5A on the night of 24 December. A torpedo attack that night did not inflict any damage and Admiral Hipper was driven off by the convoy's escorts when she attacked on the next morning. Two British transports and a heavy cruiser were damaged. The German cruiser sank a merchant ship later on 25 December, and arrived in Brest on 27 December.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Tungsten</span> Second World War Royal Navy air raid

Operation Tungsten was a Second World War Royal Navy air raid that targeted the German battleship Tirpitz. The operation sought to damage or destroy Tirpitz at her base in Kaafjord in the far north of Norway before she could become fully operational again following a period of repairs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Meridian</span> 1945 British attack on Japanese oil refineries

Operation Meridian, also known as the "Palembang Raids" was part of a series of British air attacks directed at Japanese-held oil refineries near Palembang on Sumatra during the Second World War, Meridian had two phases: Meridian I on 24 January 1945 and Meridian II on 29 January. As a result, the critical aviation fuel output of the plants at Palembang was reduced by seventy-five percent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Transom</span> 1944 British-American air raid on Surabaya

Operation Transom was an attack by Allied forces against the Japanese-occupied city of Surabaya on the Indonesian island of Java during World War II. Conducted by the British-led Eastern Fleet, the operation took place on 17 May 1944 and involved American and British carrier-based aircraft bombing the city's docks and an oil refinery. An American torpedo bomber was shot down, and two British torpedo bombers were lost in accidents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attacks on Kure and the Inland Sea (July 1945)</span> Naval battle of World War II

The attacks on Kure and the Inland Sea by United States and British naval aircraft in late July 1945 sank most of the surviving large warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The United States Third Fleet's attacks on Kure Naval Arsenal and nearby ports on 24, 25, and 28 July sank an aircraft carrier, three battleships, five cruisers, and several smaller warships. During the same period the British Pacific Fleet attacked other targets in the Inland Sea region and sank two escort ships and several smaller vessels as well as damaging an escort carrier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II</span> Naval attacks on Japan by the Allies during World War II

During the last weeks of World War II, warships of the United States Navy, the Royal Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy bombarded industrial and military facilities in Japan. Most of these bombardments were conducted by battleships and cruisers, and caused heavy damage to several of the targeted factories, as well as nearby civilian areas. A major goal of the attacks was to provoke the Japanese military into committing some of its reserve force of aircraft into battle. However, the Japanese did not attempt to attack the Allied bombardment forces, and none of the involved warships suffered any damage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">East Indies Fleet</span> Former naval fleet of the Royal Navy

The Eastern Fleet, later called the East Indies Fleet, was a fleet of the Royal Navy which existed between 1941 and 1952.

At the beginning of World War II, the Royal Navy was the strongest navy in the world, with the largest number of warships built and with naval bases across the globe. It had over 15 battleships and battlecruisers, 7 aircraft carriers, 66 cruisers, 164 destroyers and 66 submarines. With a massive merchant navy, about a third of the world total, it also dominated shipping. The Royal Navy fought in every theatre from the Atlantic, Mediterranean, freezing Northern routes to Russia and the Pacific ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Mascot</span> 1944 British carrier air raid against the German battleship Tirpitz

Operation Mascot was an unsuccessful British carrier air raid conducted against the German battleship Tirpitz at her anchorage in Kaafjord, Norway, on 17 July 1944. The attack was one of a series of strikes against the battleship launched from aircraft carriers between April and August 1944, and was initiated after Allied intelligence determined that the damage inflicted during the Operation Tungsten raid on 3 April had been repaired.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Crimson</span> Naval operation of World War II

Operation Crimson was an Allied naval operation in the Second World War of the Eastern Fleet, the objective being simultaneous naval bombardment and aircraft attacks on Japanese airfields in the Indonesian cities of Sabang, Lhoknga and Kutaraja, from aircraft carriers in the Indian Ocean on 25 July 1944.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Goodwood (naval)</span> 1944 series of British air raids against the Tirpitz

Operation Goodwood was a series of British carrier air raids conducted against the German battleship Tirpitz at her anchorage in Kaafjord in occupied Norway during late August 1944. It was the last of several attacks made by the Home Fleet during 1944 which sought to damage or sink Tirpitz and thereby eliminate the threat it posed to Allied shipping. Previous raids on Kaafjord conducted by Fleet Air Arm aircraft had involved only one air attack; in Operation Goodwood several attacks were made in a single week. The Royal Navy hoped that these raids would wear down the formidable German defences.

Force B was the name of several British Royal Navy task forces during the Second World War.

World War II was the first war where naval aviation took a major part in the hostilities. Aircraft carriers were used from the start of the war in Europe looking for German merchant raiders and escorting convoys. Offensive operations began with the Norwegian campaign where British carriers supported the fighting on land.

Naval historians such as Evan Mawdsley, Richard Overy, and Craig Symonds concluded that World War II's decisive victories on land could not have been won without decisive victories at sea. Naval battles to keep shipping lanes open for combatant's movement of troops, guns, ammunition, tanks, warships, aircraft, raw materials, and food largely determined the outcome of land battles. Without the Allied victory in keeping shipping lanes open during the Battle of the Atlantic, Britain could not have fed her people or withstood Axis offensives in Europe and North Africa. Without Britain's survival and without Allied shipments of food and industrial equipment to the Soviet Union, her military and economic power would likely not have rebounded in time for Russian soldiers to prevail at Stalingrad and Kursk.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Mawdsley 2019, pp. 407–408.
  2. 1 2 3 Roskill 1960, p. 347.
  3. ↑ Mawdsley 2019, p. 408.
  4. ↑ Roskill 1960, p. 346.
  5. ↑ Mawdsley 2019, p. 409.
  6. 1 2 Winton 1993, p. 176.
  7. ↑ Roskill 1960, pp. 347–348.
  8. ↑ Roskill 1960, p. 348.
  9. ↑ Hinsley 1984, p. 271.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hobbs 2011, p. 39.
  11. 1 2 Kirby 1962, p. 380.
  12. ↑ Hackett & Kingsepp 2016.
  13. ↑ Willmott 1996, p. 23.
  14. 1 2 Roskill 1960, p. 354.
  15. 1 2 Gill 1968, p. 401.
  16. ↑ Gray 1990, p. 160.
  17. 1 2 3 Mawdsley 2019, p. 410.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Brown 2009, p. 80.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Roskill 1960, p. 356.
  20. ↑ Roskill 1960, pp. 354–355.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Roskill 1960, p. 355.
  22. ↑ Willmott 1996, p. 64.
  23. ↑ Brown 2009, p. 83.
  24. 1 2 3 "Joseph C. Clifton, Admiral, 59, dies". The New York Times. 26 December 1967. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
  25. ↑ "Joseph C. Clifton". The Hall of Valor Project. Sightline Media Group. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
  26. ↑ Willmott 1996, p. 136.
  27. ↑ Roskill 1960, pp. 355–356.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Gill 1968, p. 402.
  29. ↑ Cox 1998.
  30. ↑ Hobbs 2011, pp. 39–41.
  31. ↑ Gray 1990, p. 161.
  32. ↑ Hobbs 2011, p. 41.
  33. ↑ Roskill 1960, pp. 356–357.
  34. ↑ Brown 2009, p. 81.
  35. ↑ Faulkner 2012, p. 221.
  36. ↑ Mawdsley 2019, p. 411.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.