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When two or more individuals engage in enterprise as co-owners, the organization is known as a partnership. This form of organization is popular among personal service enterprises, as well as in the legal and public accounting professions. The important features of and accounting procedures for partnerships are discussed and illustrated below.
As ownership rights in a partnership are divided among two or more partners, separate capital and drawing accounts are maintained for each partner.
If a partner invested cash in a partnership, the Cash account of the partnership is debited, and the partner's capital account is credited for the invested amount.
If a partner invested an asset other than cash, an asset account is debited, and the partner's capital account is credited for the market value of the assets.
If a certain amount of money is owed for the asset, the partnership may assume liability. In that case an asset account is debited, and the partner's capital account is credited for the difference between the market value of the asset invested and liabilities assumed.
A capital interest is an interest that would give the holder a share of the proceeds in either of the following situations:
The mere right to share in earnings and profits is not a capital interest in the partnership. This determination generally is made at the time of receipt of the partnership interest.
Capital account of each partner represents his equity in the partnership.
Capital account of a partner is increased in the following situations:
The increase in the capital will record in credit side of the capital account.
Salary and interest allowances are guaranteed payments, discussed later.
Capital account of a partner is decreased when the owner makes withdrawals of cash or property
The partnership agreement may specify that partners should be compensated for services they provide to the partnership and for capital invested by partners.
For example, one partner contributed more of the assets, and works full-time in the partnership, while the other partner contributed a smaller amount of assets and does not provide as much services to the partnership.
Compensation for services is provided in the form of salary allowance. Compensation for capital is provided in the form of interest allowance. Amount of compensation is added to the capital account of the partner.
To illustrate, assume that a partner received $500 as an interest allowance. The amount is included in the net income/loss distribution entry when the books are closed to the capital accounts at year end:
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner A, Capital | $500 | |
Income Summary | $500 |
As a result, the above entry Income Summary, which is a temporary equity closing account used for year-end, is reduced by $500, and the capital account is increased by the same amount.
When the partner makes a cash withdrawal of moneys he received as an allowance, it is treated as a withdrawal, or drawing.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner A, Drawing | $500 | |
Cash | $500 |
As a result, Drawing account increased by $500, and the Cash account of the partnership is reduced by the same account.
At the end of the accounting period the drawing account is closed to the capital account of the partner. The capital account will be reduced by the amount of drawing made by the partner during the accounting period.
Guaranteed payments are those made by a partnership to a partner that are determined without regard to the partnership's income. Compensation for services and capital are guaranteed payments.
A partnership treats guaranteed payments for services, or for the use of capital, as if they were made to a person who is not a partner. This treatment is for purposes of determining gross income and deductible business expenses only.
If total revenues exceed total expenses of the period, the excess is the net income of the partnership for the period. If expenses exceed revenues of the period, the excess is a net loss of the partnership for the period.
Management fees, salary and interest allowances are guaranteed payments. The partnership generally deducts guaranteed payments on line 10 of Form 1065 as business expenses.
If partners pay themselves high salaries, net income will be low, but it does not matter for tax purposes. Partner compensation and allocated net income are considered ordinary income for tax purposes and as such are reported on the form 1040. It does not matter whether or not a partner withdrew any amount of money from his capital account. .
Net income or loss is allocated to the partners in accordance with the partnership agreement. In the absence of any agreement between partners, profits and losses must be shared equally regardless of the ratio of the partners' investments. If the partnership agreement specifies how profits are to be shared, losses must be shared on the same basis as profits. Net income does not includes gains or losses from the partnership investment.
Closing process at the end of the accounting period includes closing of all temporary accounts by making the following entries.
To illustrate, assume that there are two equal partners, Partner A and Partner B. The partnership agreement specifies that after providing for salary and interest allowances the remaining income is divided equally. Assume also that net income of the partnership was $100,000 and the two partners received allowances as indicated in the table below.
The allocation of net income would be reported on the income statement as shown.
Net Income $100,000
Partner A | Partner B | Total | |
---|---|---|---|
Net Income of partnership | 100,000 | ||
Salary allowances | 30,000 | 20,000 | 50,000 |
Interest allowances | 20,000 | 10,000 | 30,000 |
Remaining income | 20,000 | ||
Remaining income shares | 10,000 | 10,000 | 20,000 |
Allocated shares | 60,000 | 40,000 | 100,000 |
Net Income of the partnership is calculated by subtracting total expenses from total revenues. After that salary and interest allowances are subtracted from Net Income, and the result is Remaining Income, which is divided equally in accordance with the partnership agreement.
At the end of the accounting period each partner's allocated share is closed to his capital account. Based on the net income allocation shown above, the closing entry is:
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Income Summary | $100,000 | |
Partner A, Capital | $60,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | $40,000 |
The allocation of net income and its impact on the partners' capital balances must be disclosed in the financial statements. All three financial statements are affected: the income statement, statement of owners (partners') equity, and balance sheet. In addition, the statement of partners' equity reflects the equity of each partner and summarizes the allocation of net income for the year.
Statement of partners' equity starts with capital balances at the beginning of the accounting period, and reflects additional investments, made by the partners during the year, net income for the period, and withdrawals.
Additional investments and allocated net income increase capital accounts of the partners. All kind of allowances, like salary allowances and capital allowances, are treated as withdrawals. Withdrawals reduce capital accounts. The result is capital balances of the partners at the end of the accounting period.
A sample statement of partners' equity is shown below.
Partner A | Partner B | Total | |
---|---|---|---|
Capital, Jan. 1 | $40,000 | $30,000 | $70,000 |
Additional investments | $10,000 | $20,000 | $30,000 |
Capital plus investments | $50,000 | $50,000 | $100,000 |
Net Income for the year | $60,000 | $40,000 | $100,000 |
Balance | $110,000 | $90,000 | $200,000 |
Withdrawals | $30,000 | $20,000 | $50,000 |
Capital, Dec. 31 | $80,000 | $70,000 | $150,000 |
The partners' equity section of the balance sheet reports the equity of each partner, as illustrated below.
Partner A, Capital | $80,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | $70,000 | |
Total partners' equity | $150,000 |
A new partner may be admitted by agreement among the existing partners. When this happens, the old partnership may or may not be dissolved and a new partnership may be created, with a new partnership agreement. For US tax purposes, a technical termination may be caused if more than 50% of the partnership interests change hands in the same (US) tax year.
A new partner may buy into the business in three ways:
Assume that Partner A and Partner B admit Partner C as a new partner, when Partner A and Partner B have capital interests $30,000 and $20,000, respectively.
Partner C pays, say, $15,000 to Partner A for one-third of his interest, and $15,000 to Partner B for one-half of his interest. These payments go to the partners directly, not to the business. The following entry is made by the partnership.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner A, Capital | 10,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | 10,000 | |
Partner C, Capital | 20,000 |
The extra $5,000 Partner C paid to each of the partners, represents profit to them, but it has no effect on the partnership's financial statements.
Now, assume instead that Partner C invested $30,000 cash in the new partnership. In this case, the following entry would be made to admit Partner C.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Cash | 30,000 | |
Partner C, Capital | 30,000 |
Finally, let's assume that Partner C had been operating his own business, which was then taken over by the new partnership. In this case the balance sheet for the new partner's business would serve as a basis for preparing the opening entry. The assets listed in the balance sheet are taken over, the liabilities are assumed, and the new partner's capital account is credited for the difference.
Example 1. Assume that a sole proprietor agreed to admit a single equal partner for a certain amount of money. The sole proprietor, Partner A, will give the new partner, Partner B, an equal share in the partnership. 100% interest of the sole proprietor will be divided in half, so that each of the two partners will have 50% interest in the partnership. In effect, Partner A sold 50% of his equity to Partner B.
Example 2. Assume that Partner A and Partner B have 50% interest each, and they agreed to admit Partner C and give him an equal share of ownership. Each of the three partners will have 33.3% interest in the partnership. Interests of Partner A and Partner B will be reduced from 50% each to 33.3% each. In effect, each of the two partners sold 16.7% of his equity to Partner C.
Example 1. Assume there are two unequal partners in the partnership. Partner A owns 60% equity, Partner B owns 40% equity, and they agreed to admit a third partner. Partner C has several options to join the partnership.
Partner A and Partner B may both agree to sell 50% of their equity to Partner C. In that case, Partner A will have 30% interest, Partner B will have 20%, and Partner C will own (30% + 20%) 50% interest in the partnership.
Partner A and Partner B may both agree to sell 25% of their equity to Partner C. In that case, Partner 3 will own (15% + 10%) 25% interest in the partnership.
Partner A may decide to sell 25% of his equity to partner C. Partner B may decide to sell 50% of his equity to partner C. Partner C will own (15% + 20%) 35% of the partnership equity.
Example 2. Assume now that there are three partners. Partner A owns 50% interest, Partner B owns 30% interest, and Partner C owns 20% interest. Collectively, they own 100% interest in the partnership.
They agreed to admit a fourth partner, Partner D. As in the previous case, Partner D has a number of options. He can buy shares of interest from one of the partners, or from more than one partner.
Assume that the three partners agreed to sell 20% of interest in the partnership to the new partner. There are more than one way to realign partnership interests.
The three partners may agree to reduce their equity by equal percentage. In order to sell 20% equity to new partner, each of the partners has to sell (20% : 3) 6.7% of his equity to the new partner.
The three partners may choose equal proportion reduction instead of equal percentage reduction.
Had there been only one partner, who owned 100% interest, selling 20% interest would reduce ownership interest of the original owner by 20%. The same approach can be used to buy equity from each of the partners.
Each of the existing partners may agree to sell 20% of his equity to the new partner. The result for the new partner will be the same as if a single owner sold him 20% interest.
This table illustrates realignment of ownership interests before and after admitting the new partner.
Before | After | |
---|---|---|
Partner A | 50% | (50% * 80%) 40% |
Partner B | 30% | (30% * 80%) 24% |
Partner C | 20% | (20% * 80%) 16% |
Partner D | 0% | 20% |
To summarize, there does not exist any standard way to admit a new partner. A new partner can be admitted only by agreement among the existing partners. When this happens, the old partnership is dissolved and a new partnership is created, with a new partnership agreement.
A new partner may pay a bonus in order to join the partnership. Bonus is the difference between the amount contributed to the partnership and equity received in return.
Assume that Partner A and Partner B have balances $10,000 each on their capital accounts. The partners agree to admit Partner C to the partnership for $16,000. In return, Partner C will receive one-third equity in the partnership. The following table illustrates calculation of the bonus.
Equity of Partner A | $10,000 |
Equity of Partner B | $10,000 |
Contribution of Partner C | $16,000 |
Total equity after admitting Partner C | $36,000 |
Equity percentage of Partner C | 33.3% |
Equity of Partner C | $12,000 |
Contribution of Partner C | $16,000 |
Minus equity of Partner C | $12,000 |
Bonus paid to "A & B Partnership" | $4,000 |
In this case, Partner C paid $4,000 bonus to join the partnership. The amount of any bonus paid to the partnership is distributed among the partners. The following table illustrates the distribution of the bonus.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Cash | $16,000 | |
Partner C, Capital | $12,000 | |
Partner A, Capital | $2,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | $2,000 |
Assume now that Partner A and Partner B have balances $10,000 each on their capital accounts. The partners agree to admit Partner C to the partnership for $7,000. In return, Partner C will receive one-third equity in the partnership.
Why would the existing partners allow a new partner to buy an equal share of equity with smaller contribution? It might be because the new partner brings something very valuable to the partnership. It might be special skills.
The following table illustrates calculation of the bonus.
Equity of Partner A | $10,000 |
Equity of Partner B | $10,000 |
Contribution of Partner C | $7,000 |
Total equity after admitting Partner C | $27,000 |
Equity percentage of Partner C | 33.3% |
Equity of Partner C | $9,000 |
Contribution of Partner C | $7,000 |
Minus equity of Partner C | $9,000 |
Bonus paid to Partner C | $2,000 |
In this case, Partner C received $2,000 bonus to join the partnership. The amount of the bonus paid by the partnership is distributed among the partners according to the partnership agreement.
The following table illustrates the distribution of the bonus. Debit to Cash increases the account, while debit to a capital account of a partner decreases the account.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Cash | $7,000 | |
Partner C, Capital | $9,000 | |
Partner A, Capital | $1,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | $1,000 |
In an equal partnership bonus paid to a new partner is distributed equally among the partners. In an unequal partnership bonus is distributed according to the partnership agreement.
Assume that Partner A is a 75% partner, and Partner B is a 25% partner. Partner C was admitted to the partnership. He paid $5,000 cash. In return, he received $9,000 equity in the partnership. A $4,000 ($9,000 - $5,000) bonus paid to Partner C would be distributed as follows:
Partner A will pay ($4,000 * 75%) $3,000. His capital account will be debited $3,000.
Partner B will pay ($4,000 * 25%) $1,000. His capital account will be debited $1,000.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Cash | $5,000 | |
Partner C, Capital | $9,000 | |
Partner A, Capital | $3,000 ($4,000 * 75%) | |
Partner B, Capital | $1,000 ($4,000 * 25%) |
By agreement, a partner may retire and be permitted to withdraw assets equal to, less than, or greater than the amount of his interest in the partnership. The book value of a partner's interest is shown by the credit balance of the partner's capital account.
The balance is computed after all profits or losses have been allocated in accordance with the partnership agreement, and the books closed.
If a retiring partner withdraws cash or other assets equal to the credit balance of his capital account, the transaction will have no effect on the capital of the remaining partners.
To illustrate, assume that several years after the formation of "A, B, & C" partnership Partner C decided to retire. The partners agreed to the withdrawal of cash equal to the amount of Partner C's equity in the assets of the partnership. Assume that the partners' capital accounts had credit balances as follows:
If Partner C withdraws $30,000 in cash, the entry on the books is as follows:
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner C, Capital | 30,000 | |
Cash | 30,000 |
If a retiring partner agrees to withdraw less than the amount in his capital account, the transaction will increase the capital accounts of the remaining partners.
For example, if Partner C withdraws only $20,000 in settlement of the interest, the difference between Partner C's equity in the assets of the partnership and the amount of cash withdrawn is $10,000 ($30,000 - $20,000).
This difference is divided between the remaining partners on the basis stated in the partnership agreement.
Assume that the partnership agreement specifies that in such a case the difference is divided according to the ratio of their capital interests after allocating net income and closing their drawing accounts. On this basis, Partner A's capital account is credited for $6,000 and Partner B's is credited for $4,000.
The entry in the books of the partnership is as follows:
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner C, Capital | 30,000 | |
Cash | 20,000 | |
Partner A, Capital | 6,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | 4,000 |
If a retiring partner withdraws more than the amount in his capital account, the transaction will decrease the capital accounts of the remaining partners. The excess of the amount withdrawn over retiring partner's equity in the partnership is divided between the remaining partners on the basis stated in the partnership agreement. ,000 | |- | Cash | | 30,000 |}
If a retiring partner agrees to withdraw less than the amount in his capital account, the transaction will increase the capital accounts of the remaining partners.
For example, if Partner C withdraws only $20,000 in settlement of the interest, the difference between Partner C's equity in the assets of the partnership and the amount of cash withdrawn is $10,000 ($30,000 - $20,000).
This difference is divided between the remaining partners on the basis stated in the partnership agreement.
Assume that the partnership agreement specifies that in such a case the difference is divided according to the ratio of their capital interests after allocating net income and closing their drawing accounts. On this basis, Partner A's capital account is credited for $6,000 and Partner B's is credited for $4,000.
The entry in the books of the partnership is as follows:
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner C, Capital | 30,000 | |
Cash | 20,000 | |
Partner A, Capital | 6,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | 4,000 |
If a retiring partner withdraws more than the amount in his capital account, the transaction will decrease the capital accounts of the remaining partners. The excess of the amount withdrawn over retiring partner's equity in the partnership is divided between the remaining partners on the basis stated in the partnership agreement.
When a partner retires from the business, the partner's interest may be purchased directly by one or more of the remaining partners or by an outside party. If the retiring partner's interest is sold to one of the remaining partners, the retiring partner's equity is merely transferred to the other partner.
For example, assume that Partner C's equity is sold to Partner B. The entry for the transaction on the books of the partnership is as follows:
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner C, Capital | 30,000 | |
Partner B, Capital | 30,000 |
The amount paid to Partner C by Partner B is a personal transaction and has no effect on the above entry. Any gain or loss resulting from the transaction is a personal gain or loss of the withdrawing partner and not of the business.
If the retiring partner's interest is purchased by an outside party, the retiring partner's equity is transferred to the capital account of the new partner, Partner D.
Debit | Credit | |
---|---|---|
Partner C, Capital | 30,000 | |
Partner D, Capital | 30,000 |
The amount paid to Partner C by Partner D is also a personal transaction and has no effect on the above entry.
The death of a partner dissolves the partnership. On the date of death, the accounts are closed and the net income for the year to date is allocated to the partners' capital accounts. Most agreements call for an audit and revaluation of the assets at this time. The balance of the deceased partner's capital account is then transferred to a liability account with the deceased's estate.
Liquidation of a partnership generally means that the assets are sold, liabilities are paid, and the remaining cash or other assets are distributed to the partners.
When normal operations are discontinued, adjusting and closing entries are made. Thus, only the assets, liabilities and partners' equity accounts remain open.
If non-cash assets are sold for more than their book value, a gain on the sale is recognized. The gain is allocated to the partners' capital accounts according to the partnership agreement.
If non-cash assets are sold for less than their book value, a loss on the sale is recognized. The loss is allocated to the partners' capital accounts according to the partnership agreement.
U.S. Return of Partnership Income (IRS Form 1065) contains, among others, Schedule M-1.
The purpose of Schedule M-1 is reconciliation of income (loss) per accounting books with income (loss) per return of the partnership. In other words, it means reconciliation of accounting income with taxable income, because not all accounting income is taxable.
Schedule M-1 starts with net income (loss) per books. Adjustments are made for guaranteed payments, as well as for depreciation and other expenses. As a result, accounting income of a partnership is adjusted, or reconciled, to taxable income.
Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business and other organizations. It involves preparing source documents for all transactions, operations, and other events of a business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts and payments by an individual person or an organization/corporation. There are several standard methods of bookkeeping, including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems. While these may be viewed as "real" bookkeeping, any process for recording financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.
In finance, equity is an ownership interest in property that may be offset by debts or other liabilities. Equity is measured for accounting purposes by subtracting liabilities from the value of the assets owned. For example, if someone owns a car worth $24,000 and owes $10,000 on the loan used to buy the car, the difference of $14,000 is equity. Equity can apply to a single asset, such as a car or house, or to an entire business. A business that needs to start up or expand its operations can sell its equity in order to raise cash that does not have to be repaid on a set schedule.
In financial accounting, a balance sheet is a summary of the financial balances of an individual or organization, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a business partnership, a corporation, private limited company or other organization such as government or not-for-profit entity. Assets, liabilities and ownership equity are listed as of a specific date, such as the end of its financial year. A balance sheet is often described as a "snapshot of a company's financial condition". It is the summary of each and every financial statement of an organization.
Double-entry bookkeeping, also known as double-entry accounting, is a method of bookkeeping that relies on a two-sided accounting entry to maintain financial information. Every entry to an account requires a corresponding and opposite entry to a different account. The double-entry system has two equal and corresponding sides, known as debit and credit; this is based on the fundamental accounting principle that for every debit, there must be an equal and opposite credit. A transaction in double-entry bookkeeping always affects at least two accounts, always includes at least one debit and one credit, and always has total debits and total credits that are equal. The purpose of double-entry bookkeeping is to allow the detection of financial errors and fraud.
This page is an index of accounting topics.
In accounting, book value is the value of an asset according to its balance sheet account balance. For assets, the value is based on the original cost of the asset less any depreciation, amortization or impairment costs made against the asset. Traditionally, a company's book value is its total assets minus intangible assets and liabilities. However, in practice, depending on the source of the calculation, book value may variably include goodwill, intangible assets, or both. The value inherent in its workforce, part of the intellectual capital of a company, is always ignored. When intangible assets and goodwill are explicitly excluded, the metric is often specified to be tangible book value.
Debits and credits in double-entry bookkeeping are entries made in account ledgers to record changes in value resulting from business transactions. A debit entry in an account represents a transfer of value to that account, and a credit entry represents a transfer from the account. Each transaction transfers value from credited accounts to debited accounts. For example, a tenant who writes a rent cheque to a landlord would enter a credit for the bank account on which the cheque is drawn, and a debit in a rent expense account. Similarly, the landlord would enter a credit in the rent income account associated with the tenant and a debit for the bank account where the cheque is deposited.
In accountancy, depreciation is a term that refers to two aspects of the same concept: first, an actual reduction in the fair value of an asset, such as the decrease in value of factory equipment each year as it is used and wears, and second, the allocation in accounting statements of the original cost of the assets to periods in which the assets are used.
Accounts receivable, abbreviated as AR or A/R, are legally enforceable claims for payment held by a business for goods supplied or services rendered that customers have ordered but not paid for. The accounts receivable process involves customer onboarding, invoicing, collections, deductions, exception management, and finally, cash posting after the payment is collected.
Financial accounting is a branch of accounting concerned with the summary, analysis and reporting of financial transactions related to a business. This involves the preparation of financial statements available for public use. Stockholders, suppliers, banks, employees, government agencies, business owners, and other stakeholders are examples of people interested in receiving such information for decision making purposes.
The retained earnings of a corporation is the accumulated net income of the corporation that is retained by the corporation at a particular point of time, such as at the end of the reporting period. At the end of that period, the net income at that point is transferred from the Profit and Loss Account to the retained earnings account. If the balance of the retained earnings account is negative it may be called accumulated losses, retained losses or accumulated deficit, or similar terminology.
In finance, leverage, also known as gearing, is any technique involving borrowing funds to buy an investment.
The rules governing partnership taxation, for purposes of the U.S. Federal income tax, are codified according to Subchapter K of Chapter 1 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. Partnerships are "flow-through" entities. Flow-through taxation means that the entity does not pay taxes on its income. Instead, the owners of the entity pay tax on their "distributive share" of the entity's taxable income, even if no funds are distributed by the partnership to the owners. Federal tax law permits the owners of the entity to agree how the income of the entity will be allocated among them, but requires that this allocation reflect the economic reality of their business arrangement, as tested under complicated rules.
A statement of changes in equity and similarly the statement of changes in owner's equity for a sole trader, statement of changes in partners' equity for a partnership, statement of changes in shareholders' equity for a company or statement of changes in taxpayers' equity for government financial statements is one of the four basic financial statements.
The fundamental accounting equation, also called the balance sheet equation, is the foundation for the double-entry bookkeeping system and the cornerstone of the entire accounting science. Like any equation, each side will always be equal. In the accounting equation, every transaction will have a debit and credit entry, and the total debits will equal the total credits. In other words, the accounting equation will always be "in balance".
In banking and accounting, the balance is the amount of money owed on an account.
Accounting for leases in the United States is regulated by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) by the Financial Accounting Standards Number 13, now known as Accounting Standards Codification Topic 840. These standards were effective as of January 1, 1977. The FASB completed in February 2016 a revision of the lease accounting standard, referred to as ASC 842.
In financial accounting, reserve always has a credit balance and can refer to a part of shareholders' equity, a liability for estimated claims, or contra-asset for uncollectible accounts.
Under U.S. federal tax law, the tax basis of an asset is generally its cost basis. Determining such cost may require allocations where multiple assets are acquired together. Tax basis may be reduced by allowances for depreciation. Such reduced basis is referred to as the adjusted tax basis. Adjusted tax basis is used in determining gain or loss from disposition of the asset. Tax basis may be relevant in other tax computations.
A deposit account is a bank account maintained by a financial institution in which a customer can deposit and withdraw money. Deposit accounts can be savings accounts, current accounts or any of several other types of accounts explained below.
Justicejee, J.A., & Parry, R.W. (2001) College Accounting 16/E, chapter 20
IRS Publication 541, Partnerships https://www.irs.gov/publications/p541/ar02.html#d0e1119