Plasma gasification commercialization

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Plasma gasification is in commercial use as a waste-to-energy system that converts municipal solid waste, tires, hazardous waste, and sewage sludge into synthesis gas (syngas) containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide that can be used to generate power. Municipal-scale waste disposal plasma arc facilities have been in operation in Japan and China since 2002. No commercial implementations in Europe and North America have succeeded so far. The technology is characterized by the potential of very high level of destruction of the incoming waste, but low or negative net energy production and high operational costs.

Contents

Plasma gasification is used commercially for waste disposal at five locations worldwide, representing a design capacity of 200 tonnes of waste per day in total, of which 100 tonnes per day is biomass waste.

Existing facilities

Wuhan, China (Wuhan Kaidi/Alter NRG, demonstration plant)

In January 2013, Alter NRG commissioned a Westinghouse plasma gasification unit at a demonstration facility in Wuhan, China. The plasma gasification unit was designed to process approximately 100 tons per day of biomass waste and convert it to clean syngas. The syngas is then converted into diesel fuel and other transportation fuels at the Kaidi facility. [1]

Pune, Maharashtra, India (Maharashtra Enviro Power Limited)

A 72 tonne-per-day plasma-based hazardous waste treatment plant, located in Pune, India, was commissioned in 2008. It is based on Westinghouse Plasma Corporation's (WPC) plasma technology and reactor vessel design. The produced gas was meant to immediately be combusted in a steam boiler driving a stream turbine producing up to 1.6 MW (net) of electricity. [2] However, the syngas utilization never worked, and due to technical issues no power has actually been produced at the plant. [3]

Mihama-Mikata, Japan (Hitachi Metals Ltd.)

In 1999 a 166-short-ton (151 t) per day "pilot" plant was built in Yoshii, co-developed by Hitachi Metals Ltd. and Westinghouse Plasma. It was certified after a demonstration period in 1999–2000. The Yoshii pilot plant was decommissioned when the pilot program ended in 2004. [4]

A 165-short-ton (150 t) per day plant was completed in 2002 in Utashinai City. It took over five years to start it up due to problems with size of the bottom of the reactor, carryover of sticky particulate, and the wrong choice of refractory. As a result, it lost its waste supply contracts and did not meet its design heat and material balance, so Hitachi Metals shut it down in 2013.

In 2002 a 28-short-ton (25 t) per day plant was commissioned in the twin cities of Mihama and Mikata. [5] The Westinghouse Plasma plants used a fixed bed gasifier with plasma torches in the bottom, with addition of coke to add energy and act as a bed for slag, and addition of lime or similar fluxing agent.

National Cheng Kung University - Tainan City, Taiwan (PEAT International)

PEAT International constructed a plasma arc waste disposal facility at National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) in Tainan City, Taiwan, which uses its proprietary Plasma Thermal Destruction Recovery method. The facility is able to handle 3–5 metric tons (3.3–5.5 short tons) of waste per day from a variety of waste streams, including incinerator fly ash, medical waste, organic industrial process waste and inorganic sludges. It can also process waste consumer batteries and other materials, including heavy metal sludges, and refinery catalysts (waste streams that would generate valuable metal alloys), but no energy recovery efforts are reported. The facility was constructed as part of a comprehensive resource recovery facility funded by the Taiwanese government, marking the first time the government of Taiwan committed financial and technical resources to the utilization of plasma technology. It was commissioned in November 2004 and received its operating permit in January 2005. [6]

USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) Supercarrier – US Navy (PyroGenesis Canada Inc.)

A compact Plasma Arc Waste Destruction System (PAWDS) was installed by PyroGenesis Canada Inc. on board the aircraft carrier USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78). The system was designed to treat 200 kg/h combustible solid waste without energy recovery. The ship was christened in November 2013. [7] [8] [9]

The waste must be sorted into metal, plastic, paper, food, and wood before the PAWDS can process it. The system is still operational as of 2021. [10]

Planned facilities

Negotino, North Macedonia (Zoka Trade)

The government of North Macedonia plans to build a €327 million plasma gasification plant in Negotino to handle municipal waste from most of the country without causing air pollution. Funding for the project comes from Luxembourg, with a private company, Zoka Trade (Zoka trejd), securing the necessary funds. [11]

The system will include 22 transfer stations and substations, and 100 trucks. For additional income, the waste will be pre-sorted to recover materials such as plastics, iron, paper and glass, and the leftover slag will be used in construction. The plant will also incorporate natural gas extraction for electricity generation at an LCOE of €180 per MWh (€0.18 per kWh). [11]

Mothballed projects

Swindon, Wiltshire, England, UK (Advanced Plasma Power)

In 2015 Advanced Plasma Power has been awarded 11 million GBP of funding from the Department of Transport and 6 million GBP from Ofgem to develop and erect the first commercial gasification facility based on the Gasplasma process. The process consists of gasification, plasma gas treatment, syngas polishing and gas engine power generation. It will be designed to produce gas for powering vehicles, power, heat and aggregate glass from processing 7500 tonnes of refuse-derived fuel annually. Construction is expected to start during 2016 [12] . [13] The installation will be used by Advanced Plasma Power for testing and development purposes rather than as a commercially operated plant. [14] As of December 2019 the Advanced Plasma Power company website had been taken off-line. [15]

Hirwaun, Wales, UK (EnviroParks Limited)

EnviroParks Limited [16] plan (31/9/07) a consortium to build an Organic Park in Tower Colliery at Hirwaun, South Wales. This includes a plasma gasification plant combined with advanced anaerobic digestion to divert municipal solid waste from the landfill. The firm is currently collaborating with partner Europlasma of Bordeaux to provide the plasma gasification unit to the park.

As much as £60 million is being put into the project by EnviroParks Ltd and its partners, to establish organic waste and mixed waste treatment facilities next to the Tower Colliery at Hirwaun. The Hirwaun site itself is large enough for the processing of over 250,000 metric tons (280,000 short tons) of non-hazardous waste a year. Initially, though, an anaerobic digestion plant will be designed to handle 50,000 metric tons (55,000 short tons) of organic wastes a year. According to the web site, as of early 2013 "...we hope to be receiving waste on the 20 acre site by 2014.". As of November 2016 the delayed gasification plant were still in the design phase according to EnviroParks. [17] As of December 2019, the project has not updated the website since 2017. [18]

Tees Valley Renewable Energy Center (Air Products/AlterNRG)

A 49 MW power plant using plasma gasification was abandoned by the owner during the commissioning phase at Teesside in the UK. [19] Fully permitted, work on the site began in 2013. [20] Work continued on the first phase using AlterNRG gasifier, and construction of an identical phase began before the first phase was completed. Each plant used the "world's largest gasifier" to date, but neither was able to run, as the technology had not been proven at scale. Commissioning on the first phase was started in late 2014. By late 2015, Air Products halted construction on the second phase until it fixed the issues. On April 4, 2016, Air Products announced it was leaving the waste-to-energy business, and was taking a write-down of $0.9-$1.0B. [21] [22]

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Plasco Energy Group Inc.)

A new and different type of plasma arc waste conversion that uses plasma to refine gases produced during waste conversion. Plasco Energy Group completed a demonstration plant in Ottawa, Canada at the Trail Road Landfill, to process 85 metric tons (94 short tons) per day of municipal solid waste. [23] Plasco Energy Group's process does not use plasma to destroy waste, but rather to refine gases produced during waste conversion, in order to allow them to be used to run an internal combustion gas engine. On 24 October 2007, the Plasco Trail Road facility began delivering power to the grid.

In an update to local area residents on 6 December 2008, Plasco president Rod Bryden said delays at its facility were caused by malfunctioning machinery, not problems with the waste-to-energy technology. [24] Unlike conventional plasma gasification, the Plasco approach was to demonstrate the technology as an integrated plant at commercial scale at its own expense. This resulted in enormous investment cost, but a proven product.

In December 2012, Plasco concluded a contract with the city of Ottawa for the construction of a three train commercial plant. The plant would process up to 405 tonnes/day of municipal solid waste, producing 0.9 MW-hrs of net electrical power, 300 liters of water suitable for irrigation, and 150 kg of non-leachable aggregate for each tonne of waste processed.

On 28 August 2013, an article in the Ottawa Citizen reported that the Ottawa City Council had voted for the second time to extend a deadline by which Plasco was required to have arranged the $200 million required to construct the commercial scale plasma gasification facility near the Trail Road landfill. The company now had until December 2014 to arrange financing. [25]

In August 2014, Black & Veatch declared the technology suitable for commercialization, as it had demonstrated net power generation through GE Jenbacher IC engines, commercially acceptable availability, and pristine environmental performance. In December of the same year, the New Economy Magazine awarded Plasco a prize as "the world's best waste management technology".

Despite this, having failed to receive expected government aid, the investors chose not to pursue the construction of the Ottawa plant and put the company into creditor protection in 2015. It was purchased out of creditor protection later that year, and is currently marketing its advanced technology. Plasco Energy has since changed its business model from Build Own Operate and limited it to supply of equipment and services [ citation needed ].

Hurlburt Field, Florida, USA (PyroGenesis Canada Inc.)

On April 26, 2011, the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) inaugurated its Transportable Plasma Waste to Energy System (TPWES) facility, located at Hurlburt Field, near Fort Walton Beach Florida, USA. The facility was designed, constructed and commissioned by Montreal-based PyroGenesis Canada Inc., and the unit deployed at the facility was based on the company's Plasma Resource Recovery System (PRRS) technology. The plant was designed to process 10.5 metric tons per day of municipal solid waste, as well as hazardous and biomedical waste. The syngas generated by the process was fed to an internal combustion engine to produce electricity, while the inorganic fraction of the waste feed was converted into an inert, vitrified slag which could allegedly be used for building materials. The system was designed to be energy neutral and transportable. [26]

The plant, which cost $7.4 million to construct, [27] was closed and sold at a government liquidation auction in May 2013. [28] [29] The opening bid was $25. The winning bid was sealed.

East Luther / Grand Valley, Ontario, Canada (Navitus Plasma Inc)

Navitus Plasma Inc. proposed the installation of a system named "DEEP" "Dufferin Eco Energy Park" within East Luther Grand Valley located in the County of Dufferin (approximately 45 minutes north of Toronto) and planned to take all municipal garbage for the county to this facility. [30] In 2014 project DEEP was reported to be likely to be shelved. [31] As of April 2016 no more recent traces of project DEEP was found on the public internet.

St. Lucie County, Florida, USA (GeoPlasma)

The first plasma-based waste disposal system in the USA was announced in 2006 in St. Lucie County, Florida. The county stated that it hopes to not only avoid further landfill, but completely empty its existing landfill — 4,300,000 short tons (3,900,000 t) of waste collected since 1978 — within 18 years. [32] The plant was originally scheduled to come into operation in 2009, but experienced several setbacks. Backers originally announced that the facility would produce 600 short tons (540,000 kg) of solid rubble from around 3,000 short tons (2,700,000 kg) of waste per day at 5,500 °C (9,900 °F), but uncertainties arose regarding the safety of such a facility. The public health and environmental threats from incinerators coupled with the uncertainty of the community's ability to produce such large quantities of waste on a consistent basis have led GeoPlasma to submit a new proposal for a much smaller facility that would convert 200 short tons (180 t) of waste per day. Plans were to begin building the $120 million facility in 2011. [33] In April 2012, St. Lucie officials announced that they had terminated the contract with GeoPlasma thereby ending the project. [34]

Tallahassee, Florida, USA (Green Power Systems)

The city of Tallahassee, Florida has signed the largest plasma arc waste to energy contract (35 MW) to date with Green Power Systems to process 1,000 short tons (910 t) daily from the city and several surrounding counties. Completion of the project was scheduled for October 2010, but canceled in 2008. [35]

Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Plasco Energy Group Inc.)

A proposed Plasma arc gasifier has been planned for the Metro Vancouver area. However residents of the area have protested. Metro Vancouver is currently conducting an RFP process to determine a long-term solution for waste management. Plasco is not proposing that Metro Vancouver discontinue the RFP process, but rather to establish an interim solution that can quickly address the shortfall in landfill capacity, while also providing a facility that will allow Metro Vancouver to closely scrutinize and evaluate this new technology as part of its long-term decision-making process. In 2008, the EPC Task Force recommended against the project. [36]

Port Hope, Ontario, Canada (Sunbay Energy Corporation)

Utilizing technology licensed from Europlasma, the plasma arc facility proposed for lands in the vicinity of Wesleyville in Port Hope, Ontario (approximately 45 minutes east of Toronto) will handle 400 short tons (360 t) per day of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and Tire Derived Fuel (TDF). Sunbay Energy is currently obtaining the required approvals from Provincial authorities and intends to have the facility operational during the 4th Quarter of 2009. This project appears to have subsequently chosen an approach other than plasma gasification. [37]

Jackson, Georgia, USA (PR Power Company)

PR Power Co. plans to open a plant south of Atlanta, near Jackson, Georgia, that will use a "plasma torch" to vaporize tires down to their natural elements — mainly hydrocarbons and scrap steel. The gases will be converted to electricity for sale to electric utilities and the scrap steel will be sold at an estimated $50 a ton. [38]

Red Deer, Alberta, Canada (Plasco Energy Group Inc.)

Plasco was preparing to start construction on a commercial-scale facility in Red Deer, Alberta in the Summer of 2009. [39] This facility, which was to be the company's first commercial plant, was expected to be completed by the end of 2010, [40] however in February 2012 it was announced that because the city would only give the plant 10% of its garbage Plasco pulled out of the project, effectively killing it. Red Deer MP and supporter of the Plasco project, Bob Mills (Conservative Party of Canada), criticized the city saying "and so, the project died due to a lack of garbage." [41]

Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain (Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas)

The regional government of Madrid, Spain, announced in 2008 the installation of a plasma-based waste disposal system in the city of Alcalá de Henares. The plan would have treated 220,000 tons of waste per year. [42] The public health and environmental threats from incinerators, coupled with the fact that the place was environmentally protected led to the revision of the whole project, changing the emplacement and choosing an approach different than plasma gasification [43]

'Re-invent the Toilet'

Delft University (TUD) participated in a contest by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 'Re-invent the toilet'. [44] The solution proposed by TUD included a self-contained toilet that used microwaves to create plasma and gasify human waste. The toilet was intended for use in India [45] and other parts of the world where a reliable source of water is not available. [46] The plasma based proposal was not among the three awarded when the challenge was concluded in 2012 [47]

Energy Park Peterborough, England, UK (Tetronics)

Energy Park Peterborough - the UK's First Green Energy Park, which was to be managed by Peterborough Renewable Energy was granted consent by the Government Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) in November 2009. It should take in mixed waste and – through a combination of recycling, gasification and plasma-enhanced waste recovery – recycle and remanufacture it, producing reusable products and renewable energy in the process. Tetronics was to supply the Plasma Hazardous Waste Treatment Technology. The technology should have turned the Air Pollution Control (APC) residue generated from the Biomass Power Plant into bricks and tiles for the building industry, thereby; ensuring close to zero residues to be landfilled. Construction was scheduled to begin in 2012. [48] The Energy Parks plans in Peterborough were scrapped in November 2015. [49]

Related Research Articles

Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, in various ratios. The gas often contains some carbon dioxide and methane. It is principally used for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is combustible and can be used as a fuel. Historically, it has been used as a replacement for gasoline, when gasoline supply has been limited; for example, wood gas was used to power cars in Europe during WWII.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Incineration</span> Waste treatment process

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained in waste materials. Industrial plants for waste incineration are commonly referred to as waste-to-energy facilities. Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat that is generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gasification</span> Form of energy conversion

Gasification is a process that converts biomass- or fossil fuel-based carbonaceous materials into gases, including as the largest fractions: nitrogen (N2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), and carbon dioxide (CO2). This is achieved by reacting the feedstock material at high temperatures (typically >700 °C), without combustion, via controlling the amount of oxygen and/or steam present in the reaction. The resulting gas mixture is called syngas (from synthesis gas) or producer gas and is itself a fuel due to the flammability of the H2 and CO of which the gas is largely composed. Power can be derived from the subsequent combustion of the resultant gas, and is considered to be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass feedstock.

The Fischer–Tropsch process (FT) is a collection of chemical reactions that converts a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, known as syngas, into liquid hydrocarbons. These reactions occur in the presence of metal catalysts, typically at temperatures of 150–300 °C (302–572 °F) and pressures of one to several tens of atmospheres. The Fischer–Tropsch process is an important reaction in both coal liquefaction and gas to liquids technology for producing liquid hydrocarbons.

In industrial chemistry, coal gasification is the process of producing syngas—a mixture consisting primarily of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour —from coal and water, air and/or oxygen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste-to-energy plant</span> Building that incinerates unusable garbage

A waste-to-energy plant is a waste management facility that combusts wastes to produce electricity. This type of power plant is sometimes called a trash-to-energy, municipal waste incineration, energy recovery, or resource recovery plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Municipal solid waste</span> Type of waste consisting of everyday items discarded by the public

Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. "Garbage" can also refer specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal; the two are sometimes collected separately. In the European Union, the semantic definition is 'mixed municipal waste,' given waste code 20 03 01 in the European Waste Catalog. Although the waste may originate from a number of sources that has nothing to do with a municipality, the traditional role of municipalities in collecting and managing these kinds of waste have produced the particular etymology 'municipal.'

Underground coal gasification (UCG) is an industrial process which converts coal into product gas. UCG is an in-situ gasification process, carried out in non-mined coal seams using injection of oxidants and steam. The product gas is brought to the surface through production wells drilled from the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refuse-derived fuel</span> Extracted combustible fraction of municipal and other solid waste

Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is a fuel produced from various types of waste such as municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial waste or commercial waste.

An integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is a technology using a high pressure gasifier to turn coal and other carbon based fuels into pressurized gas—synthesis gas (syngas). It can then remove impurities from the syngas prior to the electricity generation cycle. Some of these pollutants, such as sulfur, can be turned into re-usable byproducts through the Claus process. This results in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide, particulates, mercury, and in some cases carbon dioxide. With additional process equipment, a water-gas shift reaction can increase gasification efficiency and reduce carbon monoxide emissions by converting it to carbon dioxide. The resulting carbon dioxide from the shift reaction can be separated, compressed, and stored through sequestration. Excess heat from the primary combustion and syngas fired generation is then passed to a steam cycle, similar to a combined cycle gas turbine. This process results in improved thermodynamic efficiency, compared to conventional pulverized coal combustion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste-to-energy</span> Process of generating energy from the primary treatment of waste

Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste, or the processing of waste into a fuel source. WtE is a form of energy recovery. Most WtE processes generate electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels, often derived from the product syngas.

Plasma gasification is an extreme thermal process using plasma which converts organic matter into a syngas which is primarily made up of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. A plasma torch powered by an electric arc is used to ionize gas and catalyze organic matter into syngas, with slag remaining as a byproduct. It is used commercially as a form of waste treatment, and has been tested for the gasification of refuse-derived fuel, biomass, industrial waste, hazardous waste, and solid hydrocarbons, such as coal, oil sands, petcoke and oil shale.

Second-generation biofuels, also known as advanced biofuels, are fuels that can be manufactured from various types of non-food biomass. Biomass in this context means plant materials and animal waste used especially as a source of fuel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste</span> Unwanted or unusable materials

Waste are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use. A by-product, by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor economic value. A waste product may become a by-product, joint product or resource through an invention that raises a waste product's value above zero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste converter</span>

A waste converter is a machine used for the treatment and recycling of solid and liquid refuse material. A converter is a self-contained system capable of performing the following functions: pasteurization of organic waste; sterilization of pathogenic or biohazard waste; grinding and pulverization of refuse into unrecognizable output; trash compaction; dehydration. Because of the wide variety of functions available on converters, this technology has found application in diverse waste-producing industrial segments. Hospitals, clinics, municipal waste facilities, farms, slaughterhouses, supermarkets, ports, sea vessels, and airports are the primary beneficiaries of on-site waste conversion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ze-gen</span> Converting waste into synthesis gas since 2004

Ze-gen, Inc. was a renewable energy company developing advanced gasification technology to convert waste into synthesis gas. Founded in 2004, Ze-gen was a venture-backed company based in Boston, Massachusetts.

Chemrec AB (Chemrec) is a Stockholm, Sweden-based company with comprehensive experience of pioneering the development of black liquor gasification (BLG) technology for energy and chemicals recovery at pulp mills.

Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock (coal) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam. Rather than burning, most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce "syngas." Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide, but the exact composition can vary. In Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems, the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator. Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator. The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies. Currently, commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40% efficiencies. Syngas, however, emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas, and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant. Coal gasification is also water-intensive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UBC Biomass Research and Demonstration Facility</span>

The Biomass Research and Demonstration Facility uses biomass to create clean heat and energy. This facility is located at 2329 West Mall in Vancouver at the University of British Columbia's West Point Grey Campus. Official operation began in September 2012, by combining syngas and gasification conditioning systems with a Jenbacher engine. The highest potential output of this system is 2 MWe (megawatts) of electricity and 9600 lbs of steam per hour. This system is the first of its type in all of Canada, and it was put together by the cooperation of three parties: General Electric (GE), Nexterra, and the University of British Columbia (UBC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scholl Canyon Landfill</span>

The Scholl Canyon Landfill is a municipal solid waste disposal facility and landfill located in the central San Rafael Hills, within eastern Glendale in Los Angeles County, southern California. The 314 acres (127 ha) of land is located at 3001 Scholl Canyon Road, north of the Ventura Freeway, east of the Glendale Freeway, north of Eagle Rock, and west of the Arroyo Seco. It is owned by the City of Glendale. The landfill opened in 1961.

References

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  3. ↑ Solid Waste Management for Nagpur (2017)
  4. ↑ "How Plasma Converters Work" from the Howstuffworks website
  5. ↑ Williams, R.B.; Jenkins, B.M.; Nguyen, D. (December 2003), Solid Waste Conversion: A review and database of current and emerging technologies (PDF), University of California, Davis, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, p. 23, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-04-15
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  43. ↑ "La Comunidad de Madrid instalará una incineradora en Loeches".
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  46. ↑ "Gates Foundation Launches Effort to Reinvent the Toilet". Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  47. ↑ "Bill Gates Names Winners of the Reinvent the Toilet Challenge". Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
  48. ↑ "EnergyPark Peterborough - What is it". GreenEnergyParks. Retrieved 2013-02-14.
  49. ↑ "After three years and £3 million, curtain finally drawn on controversial Peterborough energy parks project". Peterborough Telegraph. 2015-11-26.
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