Political history of the United Arab Emirates

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The political history of the United Arab Emirates covers political events and trends related to the history of the United Arab Emirates.

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Trucial States period, 1820–1971

Before the Trucial States, the dominant force in the area was the Ras Al Khaimah ruled by the Al Qasimi dynasty. [1] After decades of incidents where British shipping had fallen foul of the aggressive Al Qasimi, an expeditionary force embarked for Ras Al Khaimah in 1809. This campaign led to the signing of a peace treaty between the British and Hussan Bin Rahmah, the Al Qasimi leader. This broke down in 1815.

British subjugation

In the Persian Gulf campaign of 1819 a British punitive expedition embarked from Bombay, India in November 1819 to attack Ras Al Khaimah. The campaign was militarily successful for the British and led to the signing of the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the 'Pirate Coast', would become known as the 'Trucial Coast' after this and later treaties. In 1892 they entered into "Exclusivity Agreements" with the British which put them under British protection. This was an unclear status which fell short of a formal protectorate, but required Britain to defend them from external aggression in exchange for exclusive British rights in the states. [2]

The British mainly stayed out of the internal affairs of the States, with the political arrangements in the region largely remaining unchanged throughout the period. [3] The British presence was exercised through the Political Resident subservient to the Indian Civil Service. [3] This was understood by the local rulers as similar to an informal tribal power arrangement. [3] Occasional gunboat diplomacy was also applied by the British. [4] Nevertheless, the locals mainly saw the local sheikhs as their rulers, who themselves shared power with other local figures. [5]

In the Hyacinth incident in 1910, a British military action against suspected gun runners based in Dubai resulted in street fighting between the town's citizens and British soldiers and culminated in the shelling of Dubai by HMS Hyacinth using high explosive munitions. The attack and subsequent bombardment resulted in the killing of 37 of Dubai's townspeople, as well as four dead and five wounded British servicemen.

Dubai instability

After the Great Depression created increased disaffection, an assassination attempt was undertaken against the local Sheikh, Saeed bin Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum, who was rescued by British forces. [6] Nevertheless, there were growing demands for redistribution of the Sheikh's wealth to the wider community by the extended elite. [7] The reform movement also demanded a council to take over governance, with a majlis of 15 members but under the Sheikh's veto formed on 22 October 1938. [8] Many social reforms were subsequently achieved. [8] However, after the majlis had restricted the Sheikh's income, he disbanded it on 29 March 1939 and had many leaders of the reformers killed, leading to its collapse. [9]

One of the Sheik's opponents, Mani bin Rashid, escaped to Sharjah to continue resistance. [10] By 3 September 1939, Dubai and Sharjah were ready to go to war. [11] Mani meanwhile was ready to mount a coup in Dubai. [11] His forces met those of Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the new acting regent of Dubai, outside the city, but was forced back after a skirmish. [12] Finally, an intervention by the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi, Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nahyan, put an end to the conflict. [12] Nevertheless, Sharjah sent troops to the Dubai side, in response to which Dubai declared war and small-scale fighting broke out. [13] A truce was agreed on 9 March 1940. [13]

Independence and unification

Towards the end of World War II, the British Political Resident called a meeting of all the Sheiks on 7 March 1945, the first such meeting in 40 years. [14] This created the precedent for regular meetings later on. [14] A shared military force was created as the Trucial Oman Scouts in 1951. Action was soon seen against Saudi Arabian forces during the Buraimi dispute during 1952 to 1955. The Trucial States Council was created in 1952 with the seven Sheikhs, and providing common services of police, customs, health, and education. [15]

In the 1950s, Arab nationalism began spreading to the Gulf. [16] The Dubai National Front was established to oppose British presence with the support of Egypt, with attacks against infrastructure and political targets. [17] The British banned visits by representatives of the Arab League, and when Saqr bin Sultan Al Qasimi planned to issue them passports to get around the ban, he was deposed in 1965. [18] Following his exile to Egypt, he returned in 1972 in an attempted coup that failed. [19]

After Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nahyan became an obstacle on the road to unification, he was also deposed by Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in 1966. [20] In 1968, the United Kingdom announced a withdrawal of East of Suez. [21] Following this, Dubai and Abu Dhabi agreed to form a union with the Union Accord, also inviting the other Trucial States as well as Bahrain and Qatar, with Abu Dhabi as the capital and Zayed as the head of state owing to Abu Dhabi's overwhelming wealth. [22] Ras Al Khaimah, Bahrain and Qatar later opted out, while the United Arab Emirates were formally established on 18 July 1971. [23] Sharjah also stayed out.

On 30 Nov 1971, shortly after the withdrawal of British forces from the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs, the seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs by the Imperial Iranian Navy took place. Following the seizure of the islands by Iran, both the emirates of Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah acceded to the newly-formed United Arab Emirates, doing so on 2 Dec 1971 and 10 Feb 1972, respectively, causing the United Arab Emirates to inherit the territorial dispute with Iran over the islands. Iran has maintained its control over the islands since their seizure.

Independent state, 1971–present

The UAE founded the Gulf Cooperation Council in 1981 with fellowArab states of the Persian Gulf at a meeting in Abu Dhabi following the Iran–Iraq War. [24] During the Gulf War, UAE forces participated in fighting while US forces used the country as a base. [25] Zayed died in 2004, and was replaced by his son Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan. Zayed's reportedly favourite wife Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi was able to promote her sons into powerful positions. [26] These included Sheikh Mohammed, Sheikh Hamdan, Sheikh Hazza, Sheikh Tahnoun, Sheikh Mansour, Sheikh Abdullah, Sheikha Shamma and Sheikha Alyazia. [27] They are the most powerful block in the ruling family of Abu Dhabi, the Al Nahyans. [28]

In January 2014, when Sheikh Khalifa suffered a stroke, Mohamed became the de facto ruler of Abu Dhabi, controlling almost every aspect of UAE policymaking. [29] He is seen as the driving force behind the UAE's interventionist foreign policy and is a leader of a campaign against Islamist movements in the Arab world. [30] [31] He supported the Saudi-led, western-backed intervention in Yemen to drive out Houthi militants after the Houthi takeover in Yemen. [32] In August 2020, Trump, Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Sheikh Mohamed jointly announced the establishment of formal Israel–United Arab Emirates relations. [33] After the death of Sheikh Khalifa on 13 May 2022, Mohamed became the ruler of Abu Dhabi; [34] he was elected to the presidency of the United Arab Emirates the next day. [35]

Political scientists have characterized Mohamed bin Zayed as the strongman leader of an authoritarian regime, [36] [37] [38] [39] as there are no free and fair elections, [40] political and civil rights are limited, [41] free speech is restricted, [41] [42] and there are no free and independent media. [40] According to the human rights organizations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, the UAE practices torture, arbitrary detention, and forced disappearance of citizens and residents. [43] [41] Political scientist Christopher Davidson has characterized Mohamed's tenure as de facto UAE leader as entailing a "a marked and rapid intensification of autocratic-authoritarianism." [37] Democracy indicators show "recent and substantial efforts to tighten up almost all remaining political and civic freedoms." [37]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the United Arab Emirates</span>

The United Arab Emirates is a country in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula located on the southeastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the northwestern coast of the Gulf of Oman. The UAE consists of seven emirates and was founded on 2 December 1971 as a federation, after UK armed forces left the region. Six of the seven emirates declared their union on 2 December 1971. The seventh, Ras al Khaimah, joined the federation on 10 February 1972. The seven sheikdoms were formerly known as the Trucial States, in reference to the truce treaties established with the British in the 19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flag of the United Arab Emirates</span> National flag

The flag of the United Arab Emirates contains the Pan-Arab colors red, green, white, and black. It was designed in 1971 by Abdullah Mohammed Al Maainah, who was 19 years old at that time, and was adopted on 2 December 1971 after winning a nationwide flag design contest. The main theme of the flag's four colors is the sovereignty and unity of the Arab states.

Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi (1781–1866) was the Sheikh of the Qawasim and ruled the towns of Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah, Jazirah Al Hamra and Rams; all within the then Trucial States and now part of the United Arab Emirates. Briefly a dependent of the first Saudi Kingdom, his rule over Ras Al Khaimah ran from 1803–1809, when he was deposed by order of the Saudi Amir and restored in 1820, going on to rule until his death in 1866 at the age of 85. He was Ruler of Sharjah from 1814–1866, with a brief disruption to that rule in 1840 by his elder son Saqr. He was a signatory to various treaties with the British, starting with the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 and culminating in the Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan</span> Sheikh of Abu Dhabi from 1855 to 1909

Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, also known as Zayed the Great or Zayed the First was the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi from 1855 to his death in 1909. He was the grandfather and namesake of Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan, founder of the United Arab Emirates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saqr bin Mohammed Al Qasimi</span> Ruler of Ras Al Khaimah

Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed Al Qasimi was the Ruler of Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah from 1948 to 2010. On 10 February 1972, under his leadership, Ras Al Khaimah become the seventh Trucial State to join the United Arab Emirates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al Jazirah Al Hamra</span> Place in Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates

Al Jazirah Al Hamra is a town to the south of the city of Ras Al Khaimah in the United Arab Emirates. It is known for its collection of abandoned houses and other buildings, including a mosque, which is widely believed locally to be haunted. The town was ruled by the Zaab tribe, which was rehoused in Abu Dhabi following a dispute with the Ruler of Ras Al Khaimah.

The Za'ab is an Arab tribe of the Arabian Peninsula, principally in the United Arab Emirates.

The General Maritime Treaty of 1820 was initially signed between the rulers of Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Great Britain in January 1820, with the nearby island state of Bahrain acceding to the treaty in the following February. Its full title was the "General Treaty for the Cessation of Plunder and Piracy by Land and Sea, Dated February 5, 1820".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trucial States</span> British protectorate 1820–1971 in Persian Gulf, precursor to United Arab Emirates

The Trucial States, also known as the Trucial Coast, the Trucial Sheikhdoms, Trucial Arabia or Trucial Oman, was a group of tribal confederations to the south of the Persian Gulf whose leaders had signed protective treaties, or truces, with the United Kingdom between 1820 and 1892.

The dynasties of the United Arab Emirates consist of the six ruling families of the seven Emirates.

The Federal Supreme Council, also known as the Supreme Council of Rulers, is the highest constitutional authority in the United Arab Emirates, being the highest legislative and executive body. It replaced the earlier Trucial States Council upon the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971 and establishes general policies and sanctions federal legislation. It is the highest federal authority in terms of hierarchy in the five federal authorities prescribed in the Constitution followed by the president and the vice president, federal cabinet, Federal National Council and the federal judiciary.

Sheikh Khalid bin Sultan Al Qasimi was Ruler of Sharjah, a Trucial State and now one of the United Arab Emirates, from 1866 to 1868 and of Ras Al Khaimah from 1866 to 1867. His short rule was most notable for the means of his accession, which involved the murder of his nephew, and also his death, at the hands of Abu Dhabi Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan in single combat.

Sheikh Rashid bin Ahmad Al Mualla was the Ruler of Umm Al Quwain from 1904–1922, one of the Trucial States and today one of the seven emirates forming the United Arab Emirates (UAE). He gained influence over the tribes of the interior at the expense of the pre-eminent Trucial Ruler of the time, Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan.

Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah Al Sharqi was the first recognised leader of the Al Sharqi Ruling family of Fujairah, one of the Trucial States and today one of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). He led Fujairah in a number of insurrections against Al Qasimi rule, presiding over a turbulent time when the emirate was practically independent but denied recognition of status as a Trucial State in its own right by the British.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mohammed bin Hamad Al Sharqi</span> Ruler of Fujairah(1908–1974)

Sheikh Mohammed bin Hamad Al Sharqi was an Emirati royal, politician and a founder of the United Arab Emirates who served as the ruler of Fujairah from 1938–1974. In 1952 he was to see his father's long-held dream of independence for Fujairah recognised by the British, the last Trucial State to be so recognised, as well as shortly afterwards to help take the UAE to independence as a nation, in 1971. Due to his skills in diplomacy and politics he was called the wolf of the Gulf.

Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut Al Nahyan was the Ruler of Abu Dhabi from 1818–1833. Having deposed his brother Muhammad bin Shakhbut Al Nayhan with his father's support, he ruled in his father's name. Under Tahnun, Abu Dhabi became a Trucial State in 1820, eventually becoming the capital of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

The Sudan is an Arab tribe of Qahtanite origin in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar and other Gulf states.

Sheikh Faisal bin Sultan Al Qassimi is a member of the royal house of Al Qasimi who rule the Emirates of Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah. He was the first Under Secretary of the Ministry of Defence and chief of staff in Abu Dhabi. Today, Sheikh Faisal is a chairman of the board of directors of a number of private companies including Faisal Holding LLC, GIBCA, Grand Stores, Hospitality Management Holdings LLC, and United Arab Bank. He has several companies and affiliates in key industrial sectors such as real estate, hospitality, tourism, trading, marketing, energy and resources, security printing and private equity.

The Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853 was a treaty signed between the British and the Rulers of the Sheikhdoms of the Lower Gulf, later to become known as the Trucial States and today known as the United Arab Emirates. The treaty followed the effective subjugation of the Qawasim maritime federation and other coastal settlements of the Lower Gulf by British forces following the Persian Gulf campaign of 1819, a punitive expedition mounted from Bombay which sailed against Ras Al Khaimah, and which resulted in the signing of the General Maritime Treaty of 1820.

References

  1. ↑ Morton, Michael Quentin (2016-04-15). Keepers of the Golden Shore: A History of the United Arab Emirates. Reaktion Books. pp. 61–62. ISBN   978-1-78023-615-5.
  2. ↑ Balfour-Paul, G., The End of Empire in the Middle East: Britain's Relinquishment of Power in her Last Three Arab Dependencies, Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN   978-0-521-46636-3
  3. 1 2 3 Morton 2016, p. 79.
  4. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 79-80.
  5. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 107.
  6. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 123.
  7. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 124-125.
  8. 1 2 Morton 2016, p. 126-127.
  9. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 137.
  10. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 127.
  11. 1 2 Morton 2016, p. 130-131.
  12. 1 2 Morton 2016, p. 132-133.
  13. 1 2 Morton 2016, p. 133-134.
  14. 1 2 Morton 2016, p. 142-143.
  15. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 179-180.
  16. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 180-181.
  17. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 181-182.
  18. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 187-188.
  19. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 189.
  20. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 193-194.
  21. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 205.
  22. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 206-207.
  23. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 215.
  24. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 224.
  25. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 225.
  26. ↑ Morton 2016, p. 228.
  27. ↑ "UAE Succession Update: The Post-Zayed Scenario". Wikileaks. 28 September 2004. Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  28. ↑ "Abu Dhabi's family business". Financial Times. 5 May 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  29. ↑ Krieg, Andreas (2019). Divided Gulf: The Anatomy of a Crisis. Springer. p. 78. ISBN   978-981-13-6314-6.
  30. ↑ "The ambitious United Arab Emirates". The Economist . 6 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
  31. ↑ "Despots are pushing the Arab world to become more secular". The Economist . 2 November 2017.
  32. ↑ "Saudi-led coalition strikes back after deadly Houthi attack". CNN . Retrieved 6 September 2015.
  33. ↑ Singman, Brooke (14 August 2020). "Trump announces 'Historic Peace Agreement' between Israel, UAE". Fox News. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  34. ↑ "Mohamed bin Zayed, Sheikhs perform funeral prayer for late UAE President". WAM. 13 May 2022.
  35. ↑ "Federal Supreme Council elects Mohamed bin Zayed as UAE President". WAM. 14 May 2022.
  36. ↑ Krieg, Andreas (2019). Divided Gulf: The Anatomy of a Crisis. Springer. pp. 96–98, 101. ISBN   978-981-13-6314-6.
  37. 1 2 3 Davidson, Christopher M. (2021). From Sheikhs to Sultanism: Statecraft and Authority in Saudi Arabia and the UAE. C. Hurst (Publishers) Limited. pp. 13–14. ISBN   978-1-78738-393-7.
  38. ↑ "UAE's Prince Mohammed Bin Zayed's Growing Influence On The U.S." NPR.org. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  39. ↑ Worth, Robert F. (9 January 2020). "Mohammed bin Zayed's Dark Vision of the Middle East's Future". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  40. 1 2 "United Arab Emirates: Freedom in the World 2020 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  41. 1 2 3 "Amnesty International condemns UAE crimes against its people". Middle East Monitor. 20 February 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  42. ↑ "The UAE's notorious limits on free speech have serious implications for expats". Middle East Monitor. 18 February 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  43. ↑ "UAE: Obama Should Press Crown Prince on Rights". Human Rights Watch. 15 April 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
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