政治現代化), [4] refers to the process of development and evolution from a lower to a higher level,in which a country's constitutional system and political life moves from superstition of authority,autocracy and the rule of man to rationality,autonomy,democracy and the rule of law. [5] It manifests itself in certain types of political change,like political integration,political differentiation,political secularisation,and so forth. [6] The process of political modernisation has enhanced the capacity of a society's political system,i.e. the effectiveness and efficiency of its performance. [7]
Sustainability studies researcher George Francis argues that 'political modernisation' is the changes in the nation-state brought about by the neoliberal globalisation process since the 1970s. [8] It primarily consists of processes of differentiation of political structure and secularisation of political culture.
According Samuel Huntington,an American political scientist,political modernization consists of three basic elements,the rationalization of authority,the differentiation of structure and the expansion of political participation. [9]
A nation is a large type of social organization where a collective identity,a national identity,has emerged from a combination of shared features across a given population,such as language,history,ethnicity,culture,territory or society. Some nations are constructed around ethnicity while others are bound by political constitutions.
In political science,a revolution is a rapid,fundamental transformation of a society's state,class,ethnic or religious structures. A revolution involves the attempted change in political regimes,substantial mass mobilization,and efforts to force change through non-institutionalized means.
Right-wing politics is the range of political ideologies that view certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable,natural,normal,or desirable,typically supporting this position based on natural law,economics,authority,property,religion,biology or tradition. Hierarchy and inequality may be seen as natural results of traditional social differences or competition in market economies.
Industrialisation (UK) or industrialization (US) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society. This involves an extensive reorganisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing. Industrialisation is associated with increase of polluting industries heavily dependent on fossil fuels. With the increasing focus on sustainable development and green industrial policy practices,industrialisation increasingly includes technological leapfrogging,with direct investment in more advanced,cleaner technologies.
Agroecology is an academic discipline that studies ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. Bringing ecological principles to bear can suggest new management approaches in agroecosystems. The term can refer to a science,a movement,or an agricultural practice. Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems. The field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming,whether it be organic,regenerative,integrated,or industrial,intensive or extensive,although some use the name specifically for alternative agriculture.
Ecological modernization is a school of thought that argues that both the state and the market can work together to protect the environment. It has gained increasing attention among scholars and policymakers in the last several decades internationally. It is an analytical approach as well as a policy strategy and environmental discourse.
In sociology,secularization is a multilayered concept that generally denotes "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level." There are many types of secularization and most do not lead to atheism,irreligion,nor are they automatically anti-thetical to religion. Secularization has different connotations such as implying differentiation of secular from religious domains,the marginalization of religion in those domains,or it may also entail the transformation of religion as a result of its recharacterization.
Environmental sociology is the study of interactions between societies and their natural environment. The field emphasizes the social factors that influence environmental resource management and cause environmental issues,the processes by which these environmental problems are socially constructed and define as social issues,and societal responses to these problems.
Governance is the process of making and enforcing decisions within an organization or society. It encompasses decision-making,rule-setting,and enforcement mechanisms to guide the functioning of an organization or society. Effective governance is essential for maintaining order,achieving objectives,and addressing the needs of the community or members within the organization. Furthermore,effective governance promotes transparency,fosters trust among stakeholders,and adapts to changing circumstances,ensuring the organization or society remains responsive and resilient in achieving its goals. It is the process of interactions through the laws,social norms,power or language as structured in communication of an organized society over a social system. It is done by the government of a state,by a market,or by a network. It is the process of choosing the right course among the actors involved in a collective problem that leads to the creation,reinforcement,or reproduction of acceptable conduct and social order". In lay terms,it could be described as the processes that exist in and between formal institutions.
Modernization theory holds that as societies become more economically modernized,wealthier and more educated,their political institutions become increasingly liberal democratic. The "classical" theories of modernization of the 1950s and 1960s,most influentially articulated by Seymour Lipset,drew on sociological analyses of Karl Marx,Emile Durkheim,Max Weber,and Talcott Parsons. Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s,and saw a resurgence after 1991,when Francis Fukuyama wrote about the end of the Cold War as confirmation on modernization theory.
Political culture describes how culture impacts politics. Every political system is embedded in a particular political culture.
Development theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches. In this article,multiple theories are discussed,as are recent developments with regard to these theories. Depending on which theory that is being looked at,there are different explanations to the process of development and their inequalities.
Environmental policy is the commitment of an organization or government to the laws,regulations,and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally include air and water pollution,waste management,ecosystem management,maintenance of biodiversity,the management of natural resources,wildlife and endangered species. For example,concerning environmental policy,the implementation of an eco-energy-oriented policy at a global level to address the issues of global warming and climate changes could be addressed. Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to influence human activities and thereby prevent undesirable effects on the biophysical environment and natural resources,as well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not have unacceptable effects on humans.
Bureaucracy is a system of organization where decisions are made by a body of non-elected officials. Historically,a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials. Today,bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution,whether publicly owned or privately owned. The public administration in many jurisdictions is an example of bureaucracy,as is any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution,including corporations,societies,nonprofit organisations,and clubs.
Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of dominance and privilege are held by men. The term patriarchy is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males,and in feminist theory to describe a broader social structure in which men as a group dominate women and children.
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) frames its ideology as Marxism adapted to the historical context of China,often expressing it as socialism with Chinese characteristics. Major ideological contributions of the CCP's leadership are viewed as "Thought" or "Theory," with "Thought" carrying greater weight. Influential concepts include Mao Zedong Thought,Deng Xiaoping Theory,and Xi Jinping Thought. Other important concepts include the socialist market economy,Jiang Zemin's idea of the Three Represents,and Hu Jintao's Scientific Outlook on Development.
Gellner's theory of nationalism was developed by Ernest Gellner over a number of publications from around the early 1960s to his 1995 death. Gellner discussed nationalism in a number of works,starting with Thought and Change (1964),and he most notably developed it in Nations and Nationalism (1983). His theory is modernist.
Modernisation refers to a model of a progressive transition from a "pre-modern" or "traditional" to a "modern" society. The theory particularly focuses on the internal factors of a country while assuming that,with assistance,traditional or pre-modern countries can be brought to development in the same manner which more developed countries have. Modernisation theory attempts to identify the social variables that contribute to social progress and development of societies,and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. Modernisation theory is subject to criticism originating among socialists and free-market ideologies,world-systems theorists,globalisation theorists and dependency theorists among others. Modernisation theory not only stresses the process of change,but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural structures and the adaptation of new technologies.
Neoauthoritarianism,also known as Chinese Neoconservativism or New Conservatism since the 1990s,is a current of political thought within the People's Republic of China (PRC),and to some extent the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),that advocates a powerful state to facilitate market reforms. It has been described as right-wing,classically conservative even if elaborated in self-proclaimed "Marxist" theory.
Modernization theory is the predominant explanation for the emergence of nationalism among scholars of nationalism. Prominent modernization scholars,such as Benedict Anderson,Ernest Gellner and Eric Hobsbawn,say nationalism arose with modernization during the late 18th century. Processes that lead to the emergence of nationalism include industrialization and democratic revolutions.