Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper,commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals and sometimes non-metals,such as phosphorus,or metalloids such as arsenic,or silicon. These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone,or have other useful properties,such as strength,ductility,or machinability.
Cupronickel or copper-nickel (CuNi) is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements,such as iron and manganese. The copper content typically varies from 60 to 90 percent.
Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures;a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply "a bronze". It can be used for statues,singly or in groups,reliefs,and small statuettes and figurines,as well as bronze elements to be fitted to other objects such as furniture. It is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu.
Scrap consists of recyclable materials,usually metals,left over from product manufacturing and consumption,such as parts of vehicles,building supplies,and surplus materials. Unlike waste,scrap has monetary value,especially recovered metals,and non-metallic materials are also recovered for recycling. Once collected the materials are sorted into types -- typically metal scrap will be crushed,shredded and sorted using mechanical process.
Bellfounding is the casting and tuning of large bronze bells in a foundry for use such as in churches,clock towers and public buildings,either to signify the time or an event,or as a musical carillon or chime. Large bells are made by casting bell metal in moulds designed for their intended musical pitches. Further fine tuning is then performed using a lathe to shave metal from the bell to produce a distinctive bell tone by sounding the correct musical harmonics.
The mon was the currency of Japan from the Muromachi period in 1336 until the early Meiji period in 1870. It co-circulated with the new sen until 1891. The Kanji for mon is 文and the character for currency was widely used in the Chinese-character cultural sphere,e.g. Chinese wén,Korean mun,Vietnamese văn. Throughout Japanese history,there were many styles of currency of many shapes,styles,designs,sizes and materials,including gold,silver,bronze,etc. Coins denominated in mon were cast in copper or iron and circulated alongside silver and gold ingots denominated in shu,bu and ryō,with 4000 mon = 16 shu = 4 bu = 1 ryō. In 1869,due to depreciation against gold,the new fixing officially was set for 1 ryō/yen = equal to 10.000 mon. The yen started to replace the old non-decimal denominations in 1870:in the 3rd quarter of 1870,the first new coins appeared,namely 5,10,50 sen silver and 2,5,10,20 Yen. Smaller sen coins did not appear before spring,1873. So the mon coins remained a necessity for ordinary peoples commodities and were allowed to circulate until 31st December 1891. From January 1,1954,onward,the mon became invalid:postwar inflation had removed sen,mon etc. denominations smaller than 1 Yen. Due to the missing small coinage,the Japanese posts issued their first stamps in mon and fixed postal rates in mon until April 1872.
Chung-guyŏk is one of the 18 guyok which constitute the city of Pyongyang,North Korea. The district is located in the center of the city,between the Pothonggang Canal and Taedong River,and is bordered to the north by Moranbong-guyok,to the northwest by Potonggang-guyok,and to the south by Pyongchon-guyok.
Korean currency dates back as far as the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) when the first coins were minted. The coins,cast in both bronze and iron,were called tongbo and jungbo. Additionally,silver vases called ŭnbyŏng were widely used and circulated as a currency among the aristocracy of Goryeo.
Ancient Chinese coinage includes some of the earliest known coins. These coins,used as early as the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE),took the form of imitations of the cowrie shells that were used in ceremonial exchanges. The same period also saw the introduction of the first metal coins;however,they were not initially round,instead being either knife shaped or spade shaped. Round metal coins with a round,and then later square hole in the center were first introduced around 350 BCE. The beginning of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE),the first dynasty to unify China,saw the introduction of a standardised coinage for the whole Empire. Subsequent dynasties produced variations on these round coins throughout the imperial period. At first the distribution of the coinage was limited to use around the capital city district,but by the beginning of the Han Dynasty,coins were widely used for such things as paying taxes,salaries and fines.
The economy of the Song dynasty (960–1279) in China was the wealthiest economy in the world during its time. The dynasty moved away from the top-down command economy of the Tang dynasty (618-907) and made extensive use of market mechanisms as national income grew to be around three times that of 12th century Europe. The dynasty was beset by invasions and border pressure,lost control of North China in 1127,and fell in 1279. Yet the period saw the growth of cities,regional specialization,and a national market. There was sustained growth in population and per capita income,structural change in the economy,and increased technological innovation. Movable print,improved seeds for rice and other commercial crops,gunpowder,water-powered mechanical clocks,the use of coal as an industrial fuel,improved iron and steel production,more efficient canal locks,were only the most important technological innovations.
Liquation is a metallurgical method for separating metals from an ore or alloy. A mixture of metals is melted together with a third,after which the mixture is separated by liquid extraction. This method was largely used to separate silver from copper using lead,but it can also be used to remove antimony minerals from ore,and refine tin.
Vietnamese cash is a cast round coin with a square hole that was an official currency of Vietnam from the Đinh dynasty in 970 until the Nguyễn dynasty in 1945,and remained in circulation in North Vietnam until 1948. The same type of currency circulated in China,Japan,Korea,and Ryūkyūfor centuries. Though the majority of Vietnamese cash coins throughout history were copper coins,lead,iron and zinc coins also circulated alongside them often at fluctuating rates. Coins made from metals of lower intrinsic value were introduced because of various superstitions involving Vietnamese people burying cash coins,as the problem of people burying cash coins became too much for the government. Almost all coins issued by government mints tended to be buried mere months after they had entered circulation. The Vietnamese government began issuing coins made from an alloy of zinc,lead,and tin. As these cash coins tended to be very fragile,they would decompose faster if buried,which caused the Vietnamese people to stop burying their coins.
Cash was a type of coin of China and East Asia,used from the 4th century BC until the 20th century AD,characterised by their round outer shape and a square center hole. Originally cast during the Warring States period,these coins continued to be used for the entirety of Imperial China. The last Chinese cash coins were cast in the first year of the Republic of China. Generally most cash coins were made from copper or bronze alloys,with iron,lead,and zinc coins occasionally used less often throughout Chinese history. Rare silver and gold cash coins were also produced. During most of their production,cash coins were cast,but during the late Qing dynasty,machine-struck cash coins began to be made. As the cash coins produced over Chinese history were similar,thousand year old cash coins produced during the Northern Song dynasty continued to circulate as valid currency well into the early twentieth century.
Taedong Gate is the eastern gate of the inner castle of the walled city of Pyongyang,and one of the National Treasures of North Korea. Located on the banks of the Taedong River,from which it gets its name,the gate was originally built in the sixth century as an official Koguryo construction,and,along with the Ryongwang Pavilion and Pyongyang Bell,served as the center of the inner castle's eastern defenses. The present construction dates from 1635,however,as the original was burnt to the ground during the Imjin wars of the late 16th century.
Ryongwang Pavilion is a scenic overlook located in the central district of Pyongyang,North Korea. Located on the bank of the Taedong River,the pavilion was first constructed during the Goguryeo dynasty as "Sansu Pavilion",and was part of the defenses of the walled city of Pyongyang. It is labeled as National Treasure #16 in North Korea.
Traditional metal working in Mexico dates from the Mesoamerican period with metals such as gold,silver and copper. Other metals were mined and worked starting in the colonial period. The working of gold and silver,especially for jewelry,initially declined after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. However,during the colonial period,the working of metals rose again and took on much of the character traditional goods still have. Today,important metal products include those from silver,gold,copper,iron,tin and more made into jewelry,household objects,furniture,pots,decorative objects,toys and more. Important metal working centers include Taxco for silver,Santa Clara del Cobre for copper,Celaya for tin and Zacatecas for wrought iron.
The Bell of Yonbok Temple is an historic bell which is kept on the upper storey of the Namdae Gate in Kaesong,North Korea. It is listed as number 136 on the list of National Treasures of North Korea and is one of the "three famous bells in the DPRK along with the bells in Sangwon and Pongdok Temples".
Qing dynasty coinage was based on a bimetallic standard of copper and silver coinage. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty was established in 1636 and ruled over China proper from 1644 until it was overthrown by the Xinhai Revolution in 1912. The Qing dynasty saw the transformation of a traditional cash coin based cast coinage monetary system into a modern currency system with machine-struck coins,while the old traditional silver ingots would slowly be replaced by silver coins based on those of the Mexican peso. After the Qing dynasty was abolished its currency was replaced by the Chinese yuan of the Republic of China.
The Kan'ei Tsūhō was a Japanese mon coin in use from 1626 until 1868 during the Edo period. In 1636,the Kan'ei Tsūhō coin was introduced by the Tokugawa shogunate to standardise and maintain a sufficient supply of copper coinage,and it was the first government-minted copper coin in 700 years. The government adopted the coin after its successful introduction in the Mito domain ten years prior in 1626,the third year of the Kan'ei era. These coins would become the daily currency of the common people and would be used for small payments.
The kingdom of Goryeo used various currencies during its almost five centuries of rule on the Korean Peninsula. Both commodity and metallic money were used,often concurrently,in a "hybrid currency system":The metallic money consisted of coins,both Chinese and Korean,and silver currencies. Paper money was used during the late Goryeo period.
