Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields

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According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), women and racial minorities are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). [1] Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of discrimination, implicit bias, microaggressions, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation. [2] [3] [4]

Contents

Race imbalance in STEM in the United States

Employed adults, by workforce, educational attainment, and race and ethnicity: 2019. National Science Board (2021) - STEM Labor Force.png
Employed adults, by workforce, educational attainment, and race and ethnicity: 2019.

Racial minorities, with the exception of Asian Americans, are underrepresented through every stage of the STEM pipeline. [1]

Education and degree attainment

Racial disparities in high school completion are a prominent reason for racial imbalances in STEM fields. While only 1.8% of Asian and 4.1% of White students drop out of high school, 5.6% of Black, 7.7% of Hispanic, 8.0% of Pacific Islander, and 9.6% of American Indian/Alaskan Native students drop out of high school. [6] Among those that graduate high school, 67% of Whites, 62% of Blacks, and 69% of Hispanics enroll in a “degree granting college.” [7] While there is no measurable difference in college enrollment of White, Black, and Hispanic STEM students, only 15% of Black students who initially enrolled in a STEM major received a STEM bachelor's degree at graduation, compared to 30% of White and Asian students. [8]

Employment, occupation, and income

National Science Foundation: Scientists and engineers working in science and engineering occupations: 2015 Scientists and engineers working in science and engineering occupations (2015).png
National Science Foundation: Scientists and engineers working in science and engineering occupations: 2015

According to the National Science Board, which provides statistical data on the U.S. labor force, Asians represent 9%, Whites 65%, Hispanics 14%, and Blacks 9% of the STEM labor force. [5] In particular, white men are 49% of the STEM labor force. [1] Among different STEM fields, Blacks make up only 4% of life science, 5% of engineering, 6% of physical sciences, 7% of the computer science, 9% of math and 11% of health-related sciences. [9] There are also significant wage gaps between women, men, and people of color, especially in STEM jobs. An example of this disadvantage is the gender pay gap and racial pay gap in computer science fields, where women earn about 74% of what men earn and the median income for White workers is approximately 23.3% more than the median income for Blacks. [9] The gender and racial pay gaps in STEM fields are significantly greater than all regular non-STEM jobs with an even greater pay gap between these gender, racial, and ethnic groups. When first being hired, 35% of women of color reported negotiating their salaries, but nearly 50% wished that they had negotiated their salary after starting the job. Many of these women reported being initially satisfied with the salary they had been offered when being hired, but later learned that they were earning much less than other workers at their same level. [10]

Effects of underrepresentation of people of color in STEM

Among Black workers in STEM fields, 57% feel that there too little attention being directed toward adding more racial and ethnic diversity in the workplace. [11] This lack of diversity contributes to isolation and a lack of social support in the workplace which can increase anxiety and depression for many people of color in STEM. [12]

Explanations for the underrepresentation for people of color

Recently, scholars have begun applying the framework of systemic racism to explain the experiences of racial minorities in STEM. [13] Specifically, research indicates that people of color, especially blacks, experience higher levels of discrimination, incur various microaggressions, and a lack of overall mentorship and support in STEM. [11]

Stereotypes and preconceived notions of STEM

Scientific racism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries attempted to identify biological, intellectual, and physiological differences among races. Lasting effects of the scientific racism include racial stereotypes about students of color and preconceived notions of STEM as predominantly a white, male field. [14] A study highlighting the underrepresentation of women and racial minorities in STEM found that Asian and White candidates were viewed as more competent and hirable than Black and Latino/a candidates. Similarly, survey results from this study show that students were much more likely to recognize and name white male STEM professionals than Black or women STEM professionals. [15] Additionally, students of color on college campus often face prevailing societal misconceptions and assumptions that they are affirmative action beneficiaries, on sport scholarships, and/or “at-risk” students. Students of color additionally must contend with stereotype threat that has been found to lower academic achievement. In particular, high-achieving Black students, attempting to combat prevailing stereotypes about their lack of intelligence, while Asian students combat the prevailing model minority stereotype presuming they are biologically predisposed to mathematical ability.

Stem identity

The development of a STEM identity increases the overall likelihood that a student will continue to develop scientific literacy and pursue a STEM career. The National Research Council's 2009 report describes students developing STEM identities as learning to “think about themselves as science learners and develop[ing] an identity as someone who knows about, uses and sometime[s] contributes to science.” [16] Black girls are less likely to develop STEM identities in middle school because they have fewer science-related experiences outside of school and less confidence in their scientific ability than Asian-American, Latina, and White middle school girls, making them less likely to enter STEM fields in the future. [17] Additionally, research demonstrates that beyond first-hand experience with science, societal norms, stereotypes, and interactions with peers, teachers, and family contribute to the development of a STEM identity. [18]

Microaggressions

People of color and underrepresented minority groups in science, technology, engineering and math are more likely than whites to experience racial microaggressions. [19] Studies show racial microaggressions that occur on college campus weaken students sense of belonging, make it difficult to form relationships with faculty, and contribute to less cultural alignment with STEM. [19] [20] At predominantly white institutions (PWI) environmental microaggressions are common in shared laboratory spaces among students and during meetings with faculty and advisors. [21] Black female students are especially likely to feel alienated and isolated from their peers in STEM departments. [22] [23]

Implicit bias

Research on implicit bias demonstrates that as early as preschool teachers are likely to hold implicit bias against students of color, especially Black boys. While Black children make up 19% of preschool enrollment, they account for about half of preschool suspension. [24] Implicit biases among teachers, faculty, and colleagues makes it more difficult for students of color to form relationships, network with professionals in their fields, and find valuable mentors. [25] Judgements placed upon people of color based on implicit biases are incredibly damaging and contribute to stereotype threat, which affects their overall performances. For instance, Black women are often assumed to be underqualified forcing them to prove that they deserve to be in those spaces as was the case of Katherine Johnson depicted in Disney's "Hidden Figures".

Sense of belonging

When people do not feel welcome in a place, environment, or institution, they are less likely to feel they belong and more likely to withdraw. [26] In particular, women and people of color often adopt individual strategies of assimilation or patriarchal bargaining in their attempt to gain acceptance. [13] For example, Black male scientists adopt coping strategies to endure racialized interactions with colleagues and managers. [27] Similarly, Black female undergraduates students describe coping with racism on campus by gravitating toward same-race peers, faculty, and staff. [22] When underrepresented groups are forced to adapt or leave the field altogether, it costs STEM valuable talent and perspectives that could be used to advance scientific discoveries and advancements.

Mae Jemison in Space Mae Jemison - Flickr - NASA on The Commons.jpg
Mae Jemison in Space

STEM pipeline

The STEM pipeline starts to narrow early as students of color face additional barriers to STEM participation in school. The following are some examples of these barriers.

Primary and secondary schools

Research indicates that racial disparities in science achievement test scores begin as early as third grade. [28] These test score disparities were attributed to both socioeconomic status gaps between races and school qualities. In particular, Black and Hispanic students are more than double as likely to live in low-income neighborhoods compared to White students which directly contributes to less money for local public schools and indirectly less funding for STEM programs. [7] Black and Latino/a may not always have the same access to higher level high school courses that are building blocks for success in College STEM fields. [29] For example, those who have not taken high school trigonometry, calculus, or physics, are put at a disadvantage in terms of graduating with a STEM degree. [26] Beyond academic preparation, experiences with STEM across various settings, including school, home, and out-of-school, help students of color see STEM careers as more possible. [17]

College

While Black males are twice as likely as their white peers to declare a STEM major upon entering college, they are less likely to graduate with a STEM degree. [30] [7] Scholars point to microaggressions, a chilly climate, and lack of role models and mentors as contributing to students of color being "weeded out” of STEM majors. [7] [25] Additionally, one study examining Black male engineering graduate students found that microaggressions from counselors, mentors, and fellow students resulted non-normative role strain. [27] These actors increase the likelihood that people of color leave STEM majors.

Mentorship

Because white men are still overrepresented in STEM fields there is a lack of available mentorship from faculty and scientists of color. As a result, students of color in STEM feel unheard, excluded, and lose opportunities to make connections with peers. Research does indicate that students of color at HBCU's are much more likely to perceive their mentors to be supportive and describe more positive interactions with peers. [25]

Work

Underrepresented minorities, including women, people of color, and LGBT individuals are more vulnerable to experience discrimination, isolation, and/or harassment in their workplaces. [31] A Pew survey of men and women in STEM indicates that 50% of women in STEM experienced gender-related discrimination at work and about 62% of Black people in STEM jobs stated they experienced racial discrimination at work. [11] Additionally, 72% of Black STEM workers believe that facing racial discrimination is a major reason why there are not more people of color in STEM fields. [11]

Strategies for increasing participation of people of color in STEM

Underrepresentation of people of color in STEM is a problem that is rooted to white supremacy and racism.

Bias training

Many scholars and organization recommend elimination of bias as a means to increase representation in STEM. [2] Specifically, implicit bias, training of students, managers, faculty, and even students is seen as one way to combat stereotypes and reduce microaggressions targeting people of color. [32] Additionally, incorporating implicit bias statements and policies can strengthen a commitment to diversity and inclusion within institutions. [33]

Protective factors

Those in STEM fields have recognized that there is an extensive history of poor representation of women and people of color in STEM and are working to close the gap. Addressing this issue requires a coherent and sustained effort across multiple fronts. Many would argue that single intervention does not work, but that sustainable and strategic reform in education, work place, and within our communities would put our theory in to practice. Transforming our perception of STEM in the early education years for students of color necessitates celebration of the distinct contribution that women and people of color bring to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. [3]

Teachers

While many teachers are highly dedicated to reducing the race gap and actively striving to create equal opportunities in their classrooms, they can actually contribute to the STEM race gap. It is important that teachers understand that their actions impact students’ futures more than they may realize. [34]

Role models

One of the most promoted solutions is the need for role models. While both female and male role models can be effective in recruiting women in STEM fields there is a lack of role models of color to mentor POC in STEM fields. When individuals have someone to look up to that looks like them, they are more willing to stay in the field and develop a sense of belonging. [35] Opportunities to engage and connect with individuals in STEM allows for excitement to be a part of this community and the development of a stronger STEM identity. [36]

Mentors

Mentors provide students the academic and social support they need to succeed in STEM, however, having same-race mentorship is an important step in retaining students of color in STEM. Not only do students of color report more positive interactions with same-race faculty, they are also more likely to develop stronger STEM identities. [22]

Organized efforts

There is a growing number of organizations whose goal is to increase diversity in STEM fields by encouraging girls and women to thrive in STEM environments. An example of one of these organizations is Girls Who Code. Their mission is to successfully close the gender gap in new entry-level tech jobs by 2030. Girls Who Code focuses their work not only on gender diversity but also on young women who are historically underrepresented in computer science fields, including African American/Black, Hispanic or Latina, Bi/ Multiracial, Native American/Alaskan, and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, those who come from low-income backgrounds, specifically free and/or reduced lunch eligible, and those who have had a lack of exposure or access to computer science. Girls Who Code acknowledges and values the intersections of race/ethnicity, gender identity and expression, class, sexual orientation, ability, age, national origin, and religious/spiritual identities.

Similarly, Black girls who participated in I AM STEM, a community nonprofit organization designed to increase STEM participation among underrepresented groups, engaged directly in first-hand scientific research which contributed to stronger connections to STEM. [37]

Another great example of organizations for the underrepresented is the Society for advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS). SACNAS's mission is to advance the success of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in securing advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership in STEM fields. The organization has been working to make sure that those most underrepresented in STEM have the support they need to attain advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership. SACNAS also often points out that diverse voices bring creative solutions to our world's most pressing scientific problems and that building a national network that is innovative, powerful, and inclusive is necessary.

Important scientists, engineers, and mathematicians

See also

Related Research Articles

Discrimination based on skin tone, also known as colorism or shadeism, is a form of prejudice and discrimination in which people of certain ethnic groups, or people who are perceived as belonging to a darker-skinned race, are treated differently based on their darker skin tone.

Tokenism is the practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to be inclusive to members of minority groups, especially by recruiting people from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of racial or gender equality within a workplace or educational context. The effort of including a token individual in work or school is usually intended to create the impression of social inclusiveness and diversity.

Achievement gaps in the United States are observed, persistent disparities in measures of educational performance among subgroups of U.S. students, especially groups defined by socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity and gender. The achievement gap can be observed through a variety of measures, including standardized test scores, grade point average, dropout rates, college enrollment, and college completion rates. The gap in achievement between lower income students and higher income students exists in all nations and it has been studied extensively in the U.S. and other countries, including the U.K. Various other gaps between groups exist around the globe as well.

Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group. It is theorized to be a contributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance. Since its introduction into the academic literature, stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology.

Covert racism is a form of racial discrimination that is disguised and subtle, rather than public or obvious. Concealed in the fabric of society, covert racism discriminates against individuals through often evasive or seemingly passive methods. Covert, racially biased decisions are often hidden or rationalized with an explanation that society is more willing to accept. These racial biases cause a variety of problems that work to empower the suppressors while diminishing the rights and powers of the oppressed. Covert racism often works subliminally, and much of the discrimination is done subconsciously.

Microaggression is a term used for commonplace verbal, behavioral or environmental slights, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward stigmatized or culturally marginalized groups. The term was coined by Harvard University psychiatrist Chester M. Pierce in 1970 to describe insults and dismissals which he regularly witnessed non-black Americans inflicting on African Americans. By the early 21st century, use of the term was applied to the casual disparagement of any socially marginalized group, including LGBT people, poor people, and disabled people. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue defines microaggressions as "brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to certain individuals because of their group membership". The persons making the comments may be otherwise well-intentioned and unaware of the potential impact of their words.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in education</span> Educational discrimination on the basis of sex

Sex differences in education are a type of sex discrimination in the education system affecting both men and women during and after their educational experiences. Men are more likely to be literate on a global average, although higher literacy scores for women are prevalent in many countries. Women are more likely to achieve a tertiary education degree compared to men of the same age. Men tended to receive more education than women in the past, but the gender gap in education has reversed in recent decades in most Western countries and many non-Western countries.

An implicit bias or implicit stereotype is the pre-reflective attribution of particular qualities by an individual to a member of some social out group. Recent studies have determined that "implicit bias" towards those of the opposite gender may be even more influential than racial implicit bias.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexism in academia</span> Discrimination in higher education

Sexism in academia refers to the discrimination and subordination of a particular sex or gender academic institutions, particularly universities, due to the ideologies, practices, and reinforcements that privilege one sex or gender over another. Sexism in academia is not limited to but primarily affects women who are denied the professional achievements awarded to men in their respective fields such as positions, tenure and awards. Sexism in academia encompasses institutionalized and cultural sexist ideologies; it is not limited to the admission process and the under-representation of women in the sciences but also includes the lack of women represented in college course materials and the denial of tenure, positions and awards that are generally accorded to men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in engineering</span> Women in the academic and professional fields of engineering

Women are often under-represented in the academic and professional fields of engineering; however, many women have contributed to the diverse fields of engineering historically and currently. A number of organizations and programs have been created to understand and overcome this tradition of gender disparity. Some have decried this gender gap, saying that it indicates the absence of potential talent. Though the gender gap as a whole is narrowing, there is still a growing gap with minority women compared to their white counterparts. Gender stereotypes, low rates of female engineering students, and engineering culture are factors that contribute to the current situation where men dominate in fields relating to engineering sciences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in STEM fields</span> Female participants in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment.

Discrimination in education is the act of discriminating against people belonging to certain demographics in enjoying full right to education. It is a violation of human rights. Education discrimination can be on the basis of ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, race, economic condition, language spoken, caste, disability and religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diversity in computing</span> Stem fields

Diversity in computing refers to the representation and inclusion of underrepresented groups, such as women, people of color, individuals with disabilities, and LGBTQ+ individuals, in the field of computing. The computing sector, like other STEM fields, lacks diversity in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender disparity in computing</span> Imbalance

Gender disparity in computing concerns the disparity between the number of men in the field of computing in relation to the lack of women in the field. Originally, computing was seen as a female occupation. As the field evolved, so too did the demographics, and the gender gap shifted from female dominated to male dominated. The believed need for more diversity and an equal gender gap has led to public policy debates regarding gender equality. Many organizations have sought to create initiatives to bring more women into the field of computing.

Implicit bias training programs are designed to help individuals become aware of their implicit biases and equip them with tools and strategies to act objectively, limiting the influence of their implicit biases. Some researchers say implicit biases are learned stereotypes that are automatic, seemingly associative, unintentional, deeply ingrained, universal, and can influence behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female education in STEM</span>

Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.

Racial battle fatigue is a term coined in 2003 to describe the psychosocial stress responses from being a racially oppressed group member in society and on a historically White campus. The term was introduced by William A. Smith, a professor in the Division of Ethnic Studies and Department of Education, Culture, and Society at the University of Utah. The framework intends to offer a lens to better understand racial undertones of a campus environment and educational experiences for people of color. Smith's research was originally conducted on Black faculty, both men and women, and then on Black college students, prior to a more focused examination on African American men. Since this earlier period of research, racial battle fatigue scholarship has been used to include other racially marginalized groups. The phenomenon builds on existing research connecting African Americans and other people of color with oppression and discrimination experienced at historically White institutions. Smith incorporates literature on combat trauma and combat stress syndrome to help understand the effects of managing hostile environments and the ensuing persistent stress.

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Medical racism in the United States encompasses discriminatory and targeted medical practices and misrepresentations in medical teachings driven by biases based on characteristics of patients' race and ethnicity. In American history, it has impacted various racial and ethnic groups and affected their health outcomes. Vulnerable subgroups within these racial and ethnic groups such as women, children and the poor have been especially endangered over the years. An ongoing phenomenon since at least the 18th century in the United States, medical racism has been evident on a widespread basis through various unethical studies, forced procedures, and differential treatments administered by health care providers, researchers, and even sometimes government entities. Whether medical racism is always caused by explicitly prejudiced beliefs about patients based on race or by unconscious bias is not widely agreed upon.

Identity safety cues are aspects of an environment or setting that signal to members of stigmatized groups that the threat of discrimination is limited within that environment and / or that their social identities are welcomed and valued. Identity safety cues have been shown to reduce the negative impacts impact of social identity threats, which are when people experience situations where they feel devalued on the basis of a social identity. Such threats have been shown to undermine performance in academic and work-related contexts and make members of stigmatized groups feel as though they do not belong. Identity safety cues have been proposed as a way of alleviating the negative impact of stereotype threat or other social identity threats, reducing disparities in academic performance for members of stigmatized groups, and reducing health disparities caused by identity related stressors.

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  34. ↑ Dodge, Amanda. "What You Need to Know About the STEM Race Gap." 2018. https://ozobot.com/blog/need-know-stem-race-gap
  35. ↑ Dasgupta, Nilanjana, and Jane G. Stout. "Girls and women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: STEMing the tide and broadening participation in STEM careers." Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1.1 (2014): 21-29. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2372732214549471
  36. ↑ Allen-Ramdial, Stacy-Ann A., and Andrew G. Campbell. "Reimagining the pipeline: Advancing STEM diversity, persistence, and success." BioScience 64.7 (2014): 612-618. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biu076
  37. ↑ King, Natalie S.; Pringle, Rose M. (2019). "Black girls speak STEM: Counterstories of informal and formal learning experiences". Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 56 (5): 539–569. Bibcode:2019JRScT..56..539K. doi:10.1002/tea.21513. ISSN   1098-2736. S2CID   150156907.
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