Creola Katherine Johnson (néeColeman; August 26, 1918–February 24, 2020) was an American mathematician whose calculations of orbital mechanics as a NASA employee were critical to the success of the first and subsequent U.S. crewed spaceflights.[1][2] During her 33-year career at NASA and its predecessor, she earned a reputation for mastering complex manual calculations and helped pioneer the use of computers to perform the tasks. The space agency noted her "historical role as one of the first African-American women to work as a NASA scientist".[3]
Johnson's work included calculating trajectories, launch windows, and emergency return paths for Project Mercury spaceflights, including those for astronauts Alan Shepard, the first American in space, and John Glenn, the first American in orbit, and rendezvous paths for the ApolloLunar Module and command module on flights to the Moon.[4] Her calculations were also essential to the beginning of the Space Shuttle program, and she worked on plans for a mission to Mars. She was known as a "human computer" for her tremendous mathematical capability and ability to work with space trajectories with such little technology and recognition at the time.
Katherine Johnson was born as Creola Katherine Coleman on August 26, 1918, in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, to Joylette Roberta (née Lowe) and Joshua McKinley Coleman.[7][8][9][10] She was the youngest of four children.[11] Her mother was a teacher and her father was a lumberman, farmer, and handyman. He also worked at the Greenbrier Hotel.[8][12]
Johnson showed strong mathematical abilities from an early age. Because Greenbrier County did not offer public schooling for African-American students past the eighth grade, the Colemans arranged for their children to attend high school in Institute, West Virginia. This school was on the campus of West Virginia State College (WVSC);[13] Johnson was enrolled when she was ten years old.[14] The family split their time between Institute during the school year and White Sulphur Springs in the summer.[15]
After graduating from high school at the age of 14, Johnson matriculated at WVSC, a historically black college.[16] She took every course in mathematics offered by the college. Several professors mentored her, including the chemist and mathematician Angie Turner King, who had guided Coleman throughout high school, and W. W. Schieffelin Claytor, the third African-American to receive a doctorate in mathematics. Claytor added new mathematics courses just for Johnson.[17] She graduated summa cum laude in 1937, with degrees in mathematics and French, at age 18.[18][14][19] Johnson was a member of Alpha Kappa Alpha.[20] She took on a teaching job at a black public school in Marion, Virginia.[16][21]
In 1939, after marrying her first husband, James Goble, she left her teaching job and enrolled in a graduate mathematics program. She quit at the end of the first session and chose to focus on her family life.[16] She was the first African-American woman to attend graduate school at West Virginia University in Morgantown, West Virginia. Through WVSC's president, John W. Davis, she became one of three African-American students,[16] and the only woman, selected to integrate the graduate school after the 1938 United States Supreme Court ruling in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada required States which provided public higher education to white students to provide it to black students as well, either by establishing black colleges and universities or by admitting black students to previously white-only universities.[12][22]
Career
Johnson working at the Spacecraft Controls Branch of NASA in 1966.
Johnson decided on a career as a research mathematician, although this was a difficult field for African Americans and women to enter. The first jobs she found were in teaching. At a family gathering in 1952, a relative mentioned that the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was hiring mathematicians.[16] At the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, based in Hampton, Virginia, near Langley Field, NACA hired African-American mathematicians as well as whites for their Guidance and Navigation Department. Johnson accepted a job offer from the agency in June 1953.[8]
According to an oral history archived by the National Visionary Leadership Project:
At first she [Johnson] worked in a pool of women performing mathematical calculations. Katherine has referred to the women in the pool as virtual "computers who wore skirts". Their main job was to read the data from the plane's black boxes and carry out other precise mathematical tasks. Then one day, Katherine (and a colleague) were temporarily assigned to help the all-male flight research team. Katherine's knowledge of analytic geometry helped make quick allies of male bosses and colleagues to the extent that, "they forgot to return me to the pool". While the racial and gender barriers were always there, Katherine ignored them. Katherine was assertive, asking to be included in editorial meetings (where no women had gone before). She simply told people she had done the work and that she belonged.[8]
From 1953 to 1958, Johnson worked as a computer,[23] analyzing topics such as gust alleviation for aircraft. Originally assigned to the West Area Computers section supervised by mathematician Dorothy Vaughan, Johnson was reassigned to the Guidance and Control Division of Langley's Flight Research Division. It was staffed by white male engineers.[24] In keeping with the State of Virginia's racial segregation laws, and federal workplace segregation introduced under President Woodrow Wilson in the early 20thcentury, Johnson and the other African-American women in the computing pool were required to work, eat, and use restrooms that were separate from those of their white peers. Their office was labeled as "Colored Computers". In an interview with WHRO-TV, Johnson stated that she "didn't feel the segregation at NASA, because everybody there was doing research. You had a mission and you worked on it, and it was important to you to do your job... and play bridge at lunch." She added: "I didn't feel any segregation. I knew it was there, but I didn't feel it."[25]
NACA disbanded the colored computing pool in 1958 when the agency was superseded by NASA, which adopted digital computers. Although the installation was desegregated,[24] forms of discrimination were still pervasive. Johnson recalled that era:
The first NASA report showing Johnson's name as co-author.
We needed to be assertive as women in that days– assertive and aggressive– and the degree to which we had to be that way depended on where you were. I had to be. In the early days of NASA women were not allowed to put their names on the reports– no woman in my division had had her name on a report. I was working with Ted Skopinski and he wanted to leave and go to Houston... but Henry Pearson, our supervisor– he was not a fan of women– kept pushing him to finish the report we were working on. Finally, Ted told him, "Katherine should finish the report, she's done most of the work anyway." So Ted left Pearson with no choice; I finished the report and my name went on it, and that was the first time a woman in our division had her name on something.[26]
From 1958 until her retirement in 1986, Johnson worked as an aerospace technologist, moving during her career to the Spacecraft Controls Branch. She calculated the trajectory for the May5, 1961, space flight of Alan Shepard, the first American in space.[1] She also calculated the launch window for his 1961 Mercury mission.[27] She plotted backup navigationcharts for astronauts in case of electronic failures.[8] When NASA used electronic computers for the first time to calculate John Glenn's orbit around Earth, officials called on Johnson to verify the computer's numbers; Glenn had asked for her specifically and had refused to fly unless Johnson verified the calculations.[1][28][29]Biography.com states these were "far more difficult calculations, to account for the gravitational pulls of celestial bodies".[30]
As a computer, she calculated the trajectory for Alan Shepard, the first American in space...John Glenn requested that she personally recheck the calculations...before his flight aboard Friendship 7...on which he became the first American to orbit the Earth.
Author Margot Lee Shetterly stated, "So the astronaut who became a hero, looked to this black woman in the still-segregated South at the time as one of the key parts of making sure his mission would be a success." She added that, in a time where computing was "women's work" and engineering was left to men, "it really does have to do with us over the course of time sort of not valuing that work that was done by women, however necessary, as much as we might. And it has taken history to get a perspective on that."[31]
Johnson later worked directly with digital computers. Her ability and reputation for accuracy helped to establish confidence in the new technology.[30] In 1961, her work helped to ensure that Alan Shepard's Freedom 7 Mercury capsule would be found quickly after landing, using the accurate trajectory that had been established.[32]
Johnson in 2008
She also helped to calculate the trajectory for the 1969 Apollo 11 flight to the Moon.[1][30] During the Moon landing, Johnson was at a meeting in the Pocono Mountains. She and a few others crowded around a small television screen watching the first steps on the Moon.[1] In 1970, Johnson worked on the Apollo 13 Moon mission. When the mission was aborted, her work on backup procedures and charts helped set a safe path for the crew's return to Earth,[30] creating a one-star observation system that would allow astronauts to determine their location with accuracy. In a 2010 interview, Johnson recalled, "Everybody was concerned about them getting there. We were concerned about them getting back."[32] Later in her career, Johnson worked on the Space Shuttle program, the Earth Resources Satellite,[1][30] and on plans for a mission to Mars.[33]
Katherine and James Francis Goble had three daughters. The family lived in Newport News, Virginia, from 1953. James died of an inoperable brain tumor in 1956[35] and, three years later, Katherine married James A. "Jim" Johnson, a United States Army officer and veteran of the Korean War; the pair were married for 60 years until his death in March 2019 at the age of 93.[7][36][37] Johnson, who had six grandchildren and 11 great-grandchildren, lived in Hampton, Virginia.[38] She encouraged her grandchildren and students to pursue careers in science and technology.[39]
She was a member of Carver Memorial Presbyterian Church for 50 years, where she sang as part of the choir.[40]
Johnson died at a retirement home in Newport News on February 24, 2020, at age 101.[41][7] Following her death, Jim Bridenstine, NASA's administrator, described her as "an American hero" and stated that "her pioneering legacy will never be forgotten."[42]
Johnson co-authored 26 scientific papers.[8][43] Her social influence as a pioneer in space science and computing is demonstrated by the honors she received and her status as a role model for a life in science.[43][44][45][46] Johnson was named West Virginia State College Outstanding Alumnus of the Year in 1999. President Barack Obama presented her with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of 17 Americans so honored on November24, 2015. She was cited as a pioneering example of African-American women in STEM.[47] President Obama said at the time, "Katherine G. Johnson refused to be limited by society's expectations of her gender and race while expanding the boundaries of humanity's reach."[7] NASA noted her "historical role as one of the first African-American women to work as a NASA scientist."[3]
Johnson in front of the Computational Research Facility named for her.
Two NASA facilities have been named in her honor. On May5, 2016, a new 40,000-square-foot (3,700m2) building was named the "Katherine G. Johnson Computational Research Facility" and formally dedicated at the agency's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The facility officially opened its doors on September22, 2017.[48][49] Johnson attended this event, which also marked the 55th anniversary of astronaut Alan Shepard's historic rocket launch and splashdown, a success Johnson helped achieve.[50] At the ceremony, deputy director Lewin said this about Johnson: "Millions of people around the world watched Shepard's flight, but what they didn't know at the time was that the calculations that got him into space and safely home were done by today's guest of honor, Katherine Johnson". During the event, Johnson also received a Silver Snoopy award; often called the astronaut's award, NASA stated it is given to those "who have made outstanding contributions to flight safety and mission success".[51] NASA renamed the Independent Verification and Validation Facility, in Fairmont, West Virginia, to the Katherine Johnson Independent Verification and Validation Facility on February22, 2019.[52]
Johnson was included on the BBC's list of 100 Women of influence worldwide in 2016.[53] In a 2016 video NASA stated, "Her calculations proved as critical to the success of the Apollo Moon landing program and the start of the Space Shuttle program, as they did to those first steps on the country's journey into space."[1]
Science writer Maia Weinstock developed a prototype Lego for Women of NASA in 2016 and included Johnson; she declined to have her likeness printed on the final product.[54] On May12, 2018, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by the College of William & Mary.[55] In August 2018, West Virginia State University established a STEM scholarship in honor of Johnson and erected a life-size statue of her on campus.[56]Mattel announced a Barbie doll in Johnson's likeness with a NASA identity badge in 2018.[57] In 2019, Johnson was announced as one of the members of the inaugural class of Government Executive's Government Hall of Fame.[58]
In June 2019, George Mason University named the most prominent building on their SciTech campus, the Katherine G. Johnson Hall.[59]
In 2020, Bethel School District, Washington, named its newest school the Katherine G. Johnson Elementary.[60]
On November 2, 2020, Fairfax County Public Schools—the largest school division in the Commonwealth of Virginia and 12th largest school division in the United States, and the City of Fairfax, Virginia, announced that the latter's school board had voted to rename its middle school, previously named after Confederate soldier, poet, and musician Sidney Lanier to Katherine Johnson Middle School (KJMS), after 85 percent of its residents voiced their support in favor.[61]
On November 6, 2020, a satellite named after her (ÑuSat 15 or "Katherine", COSPAR 2020-079G) was launched into space. In February 2021, Northrop Grumman named its Cygnus NG-15 spacecraft to supply the International Space Station the SS Katherine Johnson in her honor.[62]
Sign of the Katherine Johnson Global Academy in Baltimore, Maryland
In 2021, San Juan Unified School District, in Sacramento, California, named its newest school Katherine Johnson Middle School.[63] That same year the Baltimore County Public Schools named one of its three new schools the Katherine Johnson Global Academy.[64]
Depiction in media
The film Hidden Figures, released in December 2016, was based on the non-fiction book of the same title by Margot Lee Shetterly, which was published earlier that year. It follows Johnson and other female African-American mathematicians (Mary Jackson and Dorothy Vaughan) who worked at NASA. Taraji P. Henson plays Johnson in the film.[29] Appearing alongside Henson at the 89th Academy Awards, Johnson received a standing ovation from the audience.[65] In an earlier interview, Johnson offered the following comment about the movie: "It was well done. The three leading ladies did an excellent job portraying us."[66] In a 2016 episode of the NBC series Timeless, titled "Space Race", the mathematician is portrayed by Nadine Ellis.[67]
1971, 1980, 1984, 1985, 1986: NASA Langley Research Center Special Achievement award[68]
1977, NASA Group Achievement Award presented to the Lunar Spacecraft and Operations team– for pioneering work in the field of navigation supporting the spacecraft that orbited and mapped the Moon in preparation for the Apollo program[8][69]
On April29, 2019, the University of Johannesburg and its Faculty of Science conferred Johnson with the degree of Philosophiae Doctor Honoris causa for her pioneering role at NASA.[84][85]
The Langley Research Center, located in Hampton, Virginia, near the Chesapeake Bay front of Langley Air Force Base, is the oldest of NASA's field centers. LaRC has focused primarily on aeronautical research but has also tested space hardware such as the Apollo Lunar Module. In addition, many of the earliest high-profile space missions were planned and designed on-site. Langley was also considered a potential site for NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center prior to the eventual selection of Houston, Texas.
The term "computer", in use from the early 17th century, meant "one who computes": a person performing mathematical calculations, before calculators became available. Alan Turing described the "human computer" as someone who is "supposed to be following fixed rules; he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail." Teams of people, often women from the late nineteenth century onwards, were used to undertake long and often tedious calculations; the work was divided so that this could be done in parallel. The same calculations were frequently performed independently by separate teams to check the correctness of the results.
Christine Darden is an American mathematician, data analyst, and aeronautical engineer who devoted much of her 40-year career in aerodynamics at NASA to researching supersonic flight and sonic booms. She had an M.S. in mathematics and had been teaching at Virginia State University before starting to work at the Langley Research Center in 1967. She earned a Ph.D. in engineering at George Washington University in 1983 and has published numerous articles in her field. She was the first African-American woman at NASA's Langley Research Center to be promoted to the Senior Executive Service, the top rank in the federal civil service.
African-American women in computer science were among early pioneers in computing in the United States, and there are notable African-American women working in computer science.
The West Computers were the African American, female mathematicians who worked as human computers at the Langley Research Center of NACA from 1943 through 1958. These women were a subset of the hundreds of female mathematicians who began careers in aeronautical research during World War II. To offset the loss of manpower as men joined the war effort, many U.S. organizations began hiring, and actively recruiting, more women and minorities during the 1940s. In 1935, the Langley Research Center had five female human computers on staff. By 1946, the Langley Research Center had recruited about 400 female human computers.
Dorothy Jean Johnson Vaughan was an American mathematician and human computer who worked for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), and NASA, at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. In 1949, she became acting supervisor of the West Area Computers, the first African-American woman to receive a promotion and supervise a group of staff at the center.
Hidden Figures is a 2016 American biographical drama film directed by Theodore Melfi and written by Melfi and Allison Schroeder. It is loosely based on the 2016 non-fiction book of the same name by Margot Lee Shetterly about three female African-American mathematicians: Katherine Goble Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan, and Mary Jackson, who worked at NASA during the Space Race. Other stars include Kevin Costner, Kirsten Dunst, Jim Parsons, Mahershala Ali, Aldis Hodge, and Glen Powell.
Margot Lee Shetterly is an American nonfiction writer who has also worked in investment banking and media startups. Her first book, Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Who Helped Win the Space Race (2016), is about African-American women mathematicians working at NASA who were instrumental to the success of the United States space program. She sold the movie rights while still working on the book, and it was adapted as a feature film of the same name, Hidden Figures (2016). For several years Shetterly and her husband lived and worked in Mexico, where they founded and published Inside Mexico, a magazine directed to English-speaking readers.
Mary Jackson was an American mathematician and aerospace engineer at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which in 1958 was succeeded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). She worked at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, for most of her career. She started as a computer at the segregated West Area Computing division in 1951. In 1958, after taking engineering classes, she became NASA's first black female engineer.
Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Who Helped Win the Space Race is a 2016 nonfiction book written by Margot Lee Shetterly.
Gladys Mae West is an American mathematician. She is known for her contributions to mathematical modeling of the shape of the Earth, and her work on the development of satellite geodesy models, that were later incorporated into the Global Positioning System (GPS). West was inducted into the United States Air Force Hall of Fame in 2018. West was awarded the Webby Lifetime Achievement Award for the development of satellite geodesy models.
Hidden Figures: The True Story of Four Black Women and the Space Race is a 2018 picture book by Margot Lee Shetterly with Winifred Conkling, illustrated by Laura Freeman. The picture book is adapted from Shetterly's 2016 non-fiction book Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Who Helped Win the Space Race, that was adapted into the 2016 movie Hidden Figures. In 2019, the picture book was adapted into a 15-minute animated film, narrated by Octavia Spencer and released by Weston Woods Studios.
Dorothy Estheryne McFadden Hoover was an American physicist and mathematician. Hoover was a pioneer in the early days of NASA. Originally one of the first black women hired at Langley as a human computer, Hoover would eventually become a published physicist and mathematician. Hoover is one of the first black women to be listed as a co-author on NASA research publications. Her research supported the development of America's first jet fighter, the Sabre. Hoover's accomplishments were featured in Margot Lee Shetterly's bestselling book, Hidden Figures.
The "Rocket Girls" were the women that worked at NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) before the development of desktop computers. These women are mostly unknown, but they did the majority of all hand calculations for missions. Most of these women were given the nickname of "computers" due to their abilities in the fields of physics and mathematics.
Virginia Layden Tucker was an American mathematician whose work at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the precursor to NASA, allowed engineers to design and improve upon airplanes. Tucker was one of the first human computers at the NACA, served as a recruiter for the program, and later worked as an aerodynamicist and an advocate for women in mathematics.
Marion Lee Johnson is an American mathematician whose work was crucial to the landing of the Apollo 11 mission. She was a mathematician on the Boeing/NASA team, where she worked in preparing data for the vehicle impact trajectories. Her perfect score over 20 successful missions earned her a place on the Apollo/Saturn V Roll of Honor.
Bonnie Kathaleen Land was a computer and mathematician at NASA's Langley facility. The 2016 movie Hidden Figures, which brought awareness to this early success within the NASA space program, was written by Land's former Sunday school student, and Land served as one of the first interviewees during research for the novel. Land was called the "inspiration behind, catalyst for, and gateway to" the creation of Hidden Figures.
Miriam Daniel Mann (1907–1967) was one of the first Black female computers for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).
Kathryn Peddrew was an African-American mathematician, engineer, and scientist who played a crucial role in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). She was one of the African-American women who worked as a "human computer" at NACA's Langley Research Center in the 1940s and 1950s.
Smith, Yvette (November 24, 2015). "Katherine Johnson: The Girl Who Loved to Count". NASA. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved February 12, 2016. Her calculations proved as critical to the success of the Apollo Moon landing program and the start of the Space Shuttle program, as they did to those first steps on the country's journey into space.
1 2 Yvette Smith, ed. (November 24, 2015). "Katherine Johnson: The Girl Who Loved to Count". NASA. Archived from the original on February 28, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2017. Fascinated by numbers and smart to boot, for by the time she was 10 years old, she was a high school freshman– a truly amazing feat in an era when school for African-Americans normally stopped at eighth grade for those who could indulge in that luxury. Katherine skipped several grades to graduate from high school at 14 and from college at 18.
↑ "Johnson". National Space Grant Foundation. Archived from the original on February 26, 2020. Retrieved February 26, 2020.
↑ J. J. O'Connor; E. F. Robertson (February 2020). "Katherine Coleman Goble Johnson". School of Mathematics & Statistics University of St Andrews, UK. Archived from the original on June 22, 2018. Retrieved February 26, 2020.
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