Doctor of Science

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A Doctor of Science (Latin : Scientiae Doctor; most commonly abbreviated DSc or ScD) is a science doctorate awarded in a number of countries throughout the world.

Contents

Africa

Algeria and Morocco

In Algeria, Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, all universities accredited by the state award a "Doctorate" in all fields of science and humanities, equivalent to a PhD in the United Kingdom or United States.

Some universities in these four North African countries award a "Doctorate of the State" in some fields of study and science. A "Doctorate of the State" is slightly higher in esteem than a regular doctorate, and is awarded after performing additional in-depth post-doctorate research or achievement.[ citation needed ]

Asia

Japan

Similarly to in the US and most of Europe, Japanese universities offer both the PhD and the ScD as initial doctorates in science.

India

In India only a few prestigious universities offer ScD/DSc in science which is obtained in Graduate School after satisfactory evaluation of knowledge, research accomplishment, and a doctoral defence. The oldest institute to award a DSc degree in India is Rajabazar Science College, University of Calcutta. [1]

Thailand

Higher education institutes in Thailand generally grant PhD as a doctoral research degree, some universities including Chulalongkorn University award DSc. In exception, Mahidol University can grant both PhD and DSc. Doctoral students in Faculty of Science are always awarded PhD, but some other programs award DSc.[ specify ][ citation needed ]

Uzbekistan

DSc or PhD degrees are awarded after dissertation and fulfilling the required publication number. [2] In order to qualify for DSc, one is required to have attained a PhD. The higher education institutes in Uzbekistan also grant DSc degrees. As an example, the National University of Uzbekistan and the Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences offer DSc in various fields.

Europe

Austria, Germany, and Switzerland

In Germany, Austria, and the German-speaking region of Switzerland, the most common doctoral degrees in Natural Sciences are the following:

In these countries there are some related doctoral degrees with very similar names, these are the:

All of these doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD or ScD of the American system. Until German Reunification, universities in East Germany also awarded the Dr Sc. However, the East German Dr Sc was not equivalent to the PhD since it was adopted to replace the German Habilitation and therefore was equivalent to this higher-level qualification. After reunification the Habilitation was reintroduced at universities in Eastern Germany.

The procedure of habilitation is normally required to receive officially the "venia docendi", which entitles the candidate to lecture at universities ( Privatdozent , for men, or Privatdozentin, for women). The academic degree after the successful habilitation is e.g. Dr. rer. nat. habil., by adding the suffix "habil." to the earlier received Doctors degree.

In Switzerland, the Dr sc. is a doctoral degree awarded only by the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology (EPFL and ETHZ), [3] the University of Fribourg and the Department of Informatics of the University of Zurich. [4] The Swiss Dr sc., like the DSc in the US, is equivalent to the PhD. It is earned with the approval of a committee on the basis of original research, publications, and extensive applied professional contributions and is awarded in doctoral level science and technology programs. Since 2004 the Dr sc. is the only doctoral degree awarded by the ETH Zurich. The École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne awards the degree Docteur ès sciences, abbreviated Dr ès sc.and translated into English as PhD. [5]

Poland

In Poland higher doctorate is Habilitation (habilitated doctor, doctor with habilitation) (doktor habilitowany or dr hab. in Polish) is the degree higher than PhD and it is awarded for substantial accomplishments in academic teaching, research and service after getting the PhD degree (usually up to 8 years of original research and multiple publications in peer reviewed scientific journals and monograph, habilitation dissertation after PhD). It is similar to habilitation degree in Germany and Austria. It is also similar (in terms of requirements) to associate professor with tenure.

After achieving high degrees and rich research or artistic achievements, including as an academic teacher, lecturer, one can apply to become a professor.

The President of Poland awards a scientist also in engineering (engineer) or artist the scientific title of professor (tytuł naukowy profesora) and the title of professor of art (tytuł profesora sztuki), respectively, in recognition of their scientific achievements and contributions to science, technology, and respectively their achievements in art and contributions to art. These titles are not academic/scientific or art degrees. However, possession of high degrees is required to receive the title. Habilitation has been a mandatory requirement for many years to apply for professorship in Poland.

United Kingdom, Ireland, India, Pakistan and the Commonwealth

In Ireland, the United Kingdom and the countries of the Commonwealth, such as Australia and India (in the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay), the degree of Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) is one of the Higher Doctorates. In some older universities it typically has precedence after Divinity, Laws or Civil Law, Medicine, and Letters, and above Music. The degree is conferred on a member of the university who has a proven record of internationally recognised scholarship. A candidate for the degree will usually be required to submit a selection of their publications that follow a consistent theme to the board of the appropriate faculty, which will decide if the candidate merits this accolade. [6] Quite often they will need to be a doctoral graduate of at least ten years standing and have a substantial research association with the awarding university. [6]

The first University to admit an individual to this degree was the University of London in 1860. [7] In 1893 Maria Gordon (née Ogilvie), was the first woman to receive this degree. [8]

In former times the doctorate in science was regarded as a greater distinction than a professorial chair and hence a professor who was also a DSc would be known as Doctor. The Doctor of Science may also be awarded as an honorary degree, that is, given to individuals who have made extensive contributions to a particular field and not for specific academic accomplishments. It is usual to signify this by adding DSc h.c. (for honoris causa ).

Other European Union countries

In the Czech Republic and Slovakia "Doctor of Sciences" (DrSc behind the name), established in 1953, is equivalent to the degree of Doctor of Science in the sense in which the DSc is used in the Commonwealth. It is the highest academic qualification, different from both PhD and PhDr. titles. In the Czech Republic, DrSc has not been awarded since 2001; instead, since 2006, a "Doctor of Sciences" degree (DSc behind the name) has been awarded, not by universities but by the Czech Academy of Sciences mostly for research in the field of natural or formal science. In Slovakia, "Doctor of Sciences" (DrSc) is awarded by the Slovak Academy of Sciences.

In Hungary, "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc) is a higher doctorate degree and it is awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

In Finland, most doctoral degrees awarded in the fields of natural sciences, technology and economics are termed DSc degrees in English, with a suffix indicating the field of study. However, there is no translation of the term Doctor of Science to Finnish. For example, the proper translation for the doctorate in technology (tekniikan tohtori) would be DSc (Tech), whereas a doctorate in economics and business administration (kauppatieteiden tohtori) would be translated as DSc (Econ). When conversing or writing in English, the prefix Dr may be used to address a holder of a doctoral degree awarded in Finland. The degrees are equivalent to filosofian tohtori (FT, English: PhD), but FT is usually awarded only in general sciences, not in specializations like engineering, economics or medicine.

In France, the Doctor of Sciences degree (doctorat ès sciences also called doctorat d'État) was a higher doctorate in the fields of experimental and natural sciences, superseded in 1984 by the habilitation.

In Denmark, Dr Scient. is a higher doctorate.

In Bulgaria, "Doctor" (PhD) is the highest education level and first science degree. Doctor of Sciences (DrSc) is the second and the highest science degree.

Russia and other post-communist states

In Russia, the status of Russian Doktor Nauk (literally 'Doctor of Sciences') is considered a higher scientific degree. The equivalent to PhD is "Candidat Nauk"

Other European countries

In the former Yugoslavia, (Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, North Macedonia), [9] title doktor nauka or doktor znanosti (literally "doctor of science") is used in a much broader sense than DSc, simply referring to a field of academic study – from art history (doktor znanosti/nauka povijesti umjetnosti), philosophy (doktor znanosti/nauka filozofije), and literary studies (doktor znanosti/nauka književnosti) to hard sciences such as molecular biology (doktor znanosti/nauka molekularne biologije). It is therefore formally recognized as a PhD degree.

Starting in 2016, [10] in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ukrainian: Доктор філософії) is the highest education level and first science degree. "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc Ukrainian: Доктор наук) is the second and the highest science degree, awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. Since 2016, a PhD degree is one of the prerequisites for heading a university department in Ukraine.

In Belarus "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc, Belarusian: Доктар навук) is the highest level of education that follows a PhD. Is awarded by The Higher Attestation Commission under the aegis of the President of the Republic of Belarus.

North America

United States

In the United States, the formally recognized traditional Doctor of Science is an academic research doctoral degree awarded by research universities. The academic research ScD (or DSc) is not higher than a PhD as is the case in some European countries. [11]

The first North American ScD was inaugurated by Harvard University in 1872, when graduate studies first began at Harvard, and where the PhD and ScD degrees were introduced in the same year. [12] The Doctor of Science research degree is earned with the formal dissertation defense and approval of a committee on the basis of original research and publications, and it is awarded predominantly in doctoral-level science programs, such as engineering, medical and health sciences, and health economics. [13]

Although rarer than the Doctor of Philosophy, the Doctor of Science is awarded by institutions including:

A few university doctoral research programs offer both the ScD and PhD degrees in the same academic field, such as Johns Hopkins University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, [18] [19] with identical requirements for obtaining either. Research programs that offer the formal research ScD but not the PhD degree for a given field include several doctoral programs at Harvard University, [31] Boston University,[ citation needed ] Capitol Technology University, [32] [33] [34] and Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center [ citation needed ]. The University of Baltimore, School of Information Arts and Technologies offers an ScD degree in Information and Interaction Design, a program focused on usable design/user experience (UX) and Human Computer Interaction (HCI). [35]

There are programs where the ScD and PhD have different degree requirements, though the two degrees are officially considered equivalent. The Engineering school at Washington University in St. Louis, for example, requires four more graduate courses in the DSc program, which can be completed in one year in conjunction with research duties, while the PhD requires teaching assistance services. The Johns Hopkins University also offers both PhD and ScD in certain programs, [36] with only minor differences in university administration of the degrees. In some institutions, the ScD has been converted to the PhD. [37] For instance, the doctoral degree in biostatistics at Harvard recently converted from ScD to PhD, even though the doctoral degree structure and requirements have remained identical. [37]

Mexico

In Mexico the PhD level is considered a doctoral degree (level 8) similar to the doctorate degrees in Canada and the United States. The Doctor of Sciences degree is instead recognized as a Higher Degree (Grado Propio).

Costa Rica

In Costa Rica, doctorates are the highest academic degrees awarded by a university. They are focused on research and accessible only after the study of an academic Master's degree (as opposed to a professional Master's degree, intended for practical subjects). [38] The University of Costa Rica, for example, offers a general Doctor of Sciences degree for students of all natural and exact sciences, a Doctor of Engineering degree for students of Engineering (in cooperation with the Costa Rica Institute of Technology), and a few other doctorate programs on applied sciences (for example, in Agricultural Sciences or Informatics). [39]

South America

Argentina

In Argentina the formal title Doctor of Science would be attributed to different fields of the hard or soft sciences. To get into an Argentine PhD program the applicant must have experience in research and at least an Engineering, Licentiate or master's degree: [40]

Applied sciences

Basic sciences

Brazil

In Brazil only the Doctor in Sciences (DSc) category is recognized as a higher doctorate, [41] generally followed by the concentration area (program field).

This kind of doctorate is obtained in Graduate School after satisfactory evaluation of knowledge, research accomplishment, and thesis defense. This doctorate is comparable to a PhD program found in other countries. In the state of São Paulo, the doctorate title is the second highest academic title given by the state's universities (University of São Paulo (USP), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) and São Paulo State University (UNESP)) and most Federal Universities, such as the Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP). The highest academic title is the Livre-Docência, which is not equivalent to the German Habilitation, since "Livre-Docência" is not a requisite to be a professor in Brazilian universities, and German Habilitation is a requisite to be a professor in German universities. However, "Live-Docencia" is a requisite to be promoted to Associate Professor / "full" Professor (Professor Titular) at several of those public research Universities.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doctor (title)</span> Academic title for a holder of a doctoral degree

Doctor is an academic title that originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb docēre 'to teach'. It has been used as an academic title in Europe since the 13th century, when the first doctorates were awarded at the University of Bologna and the University of Paris.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postgraduate education</span> Phase of higher education

Postgraduate education, graduate education, or graduate school consists of academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications usually pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree.

An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in higher education, usually at a college or university. These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is the bachelor's degree, although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as associate and foundation degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include engineer's degrees, master's degrees and doctorates.

A doctorate or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi.

Degree abbreviations are used as an alternative way to specify an academic degree instead of spelling out the title in full, such as in reference books such as Who's Who and on business cards. Many degree titles have more than one possible abbreviation, with the abbreviation used varying between different universities. In the UK it is normal not to punctuate abbreviations for degrees with full stops, although this is done at some universities.

Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation. The degree, sometimes abbreviated Dr. habil., Dr hab., or D.Sc., is often a qualification for full professorship in those countries. In German-speaking countries it allows the degree holder to bear the title PD. In a number of countries there exists an academic post of docent, appointment to which often requires such a qualification. The degree conferral is usually accompanied by a public oral defence event with one or more opponents. Habilitation is usually awarded 5–15 years after a PhD degree or its equivalent. Achieving this academic degree does not automatically give the scientist a paid position, though many people who apply for the degree already have steady university employment.

A Doctor of Medicine is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree of physician. This generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the M.D. degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.) was used: in the 19th century, it became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the M.D. is a research doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree (Bachelor's/Master's/Doctoral) in medicine. In those countries, the equivalent professional degree to the North American, and some others' usage of M.D. is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery.

The Doctor of Technology is a degree normally conferred upon candidates after having completed a course of study in technology and a dissertation or a project of lengthy duration in a technologically related field. Like other doctorates, it is usually an academic degree at the highest level equivalent to a PhD.

Legum Doctor (LL.D.) or, in English, Doctor of Laws, is a doctorate-level academic degree in law or an honorary degree, depending on the jurisdiction. The double “L” in the abbreviation refers to the early practice in the University of Cambridge to teach both canon law and civil law, with the double “L” itself indicating the plural, although Cambridge now gives the degree the name Doctor of Law in English. This contrasts with the practice of the University of Oxford, where the degree that survived from the Middle Ages is the DCL or Doctor of Civil Law (only).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Candidate of Sciences</span> Junior scientific degree in Soviet Union and post-Soviet countries

A Candidate of Sciences is a PhD-equivalent academic research degree in many post-Soviet and Eastern European countries, including Russia, Czechia, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. It is officially classified by UNESCO as ISCED level 8, "doctoral or equivalent". In those countries conferring the Candidate of Sciences degrees, a more advanced degree, Doctor of Sciences, is usually conferred as a higher doctorate.

A terminal degree is the highest-level university degree that can be achieved and awarded in an academic discipline or professional field. The term "terminal degree" is also used to refer to a degree that is awarded because a doctoral-level degree is not available or appropriate. The two main types of terminal degrees are academic or professional.

Doctor of Letters, also termed Doctor of Literature in some countries, is a terminal degree in the arts, humanities and social sciences. In the United States, at universities such as Drew University and American Trinity University, the degree is an "interdisciplinary" program of postgraduate study designed "with working professionals in mind." Depending on the country, the degree may also be a higher doctorate after the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree or equivalent to a higher doctorate, such as the Doctor of Science or Doctor of Laws (LL.D). It is awarded in Argentina and Mexico by universities in recognition of superior accomplishment in the Arts, Social Sciences or humanities, such as original contributions to the creative or cultural arts, or scholarship in Social Sciences and humanities and other merits. or may be conferred as an earned higher doctorate by Universities in England or Canada after the submission and academic evaluation of a portfolio of sustained scholarship, publications, research, or other scientific work of the highest caliber.

The Doctor of Engineering is a research doctorate in engineering and applied science. An EngD is a terminal degree similar to a PhD in engineering but applicable more in industry rather than in academia. The degree is usually aimed toward working professionals.

The Doctor of Social Science degree is the highest degree offered by some universities in the field of social sciences, for which other universities confer a Ph.D.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doctor of Sciences</span> Soviet and Russian degree

A Doctor of Sciences is a higher doctoral degree in the Russian Empire, Soviet Union and many Commonwealth of Independent States countries. One of the prerequisites of receiving a Doctor of Sciences degree is having a PhD-equivalent Candidate of Sciences degree beforehand. In addition, the Doctor of Sciences conferral also requires applicants to demonstrate significant and outstanding contributions to their research field. This degree is generally regarded as an honor and recognition for lifetime academic achievements rather than an ordinary academic degree by courses and theses.

A Doctor of Philosophy is a terminal degree that usually denotes the highest level of academic achievement in a given discipline and is awarded following a course of graduate study and original research. The name of the degree is most often abbreviated PhD, pronounced as three separate letters. The University of Oxford uses the alternative abbreviation "DPhil".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doctor Medicinae (Danish and Norwegian degree)</span> Danish and former Norwegian higher research doctorate in medicine

Doctor Medicinae, also spelled Doctor Medicinæ and abbreviated Dr. Med., is a higher doctoral degree in medicine awarded by universities in Denmark and formerly in Norway. It is officially translated as Doctor of Medical Science (D.M.Sc.), corresponding to similarly named higher doctorates found in some Commonwealth countries. It is regarded as a higher doctorate and officially ranks above the Danish PhD degree.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Doctor of Law</span> Doctorate in legal studies

A Doctor of Law is a doctorate in legal studies.

Academic ranks in Hungary are the titles, relative importance and power of professors, researchers, and administrative personnel held in academia.

References

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  2. ↑ "O'zbekiston Respublikasi Vazirlar Mahkamasi Huzuridagi Oliy Attestatsiya Komissiyasi Rayosatining Qarori – Ilmiy Darajalar Berish Tartibi To'g'risidagi Nizomni Tasdiqlash Haqida". lex.uz. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  3. ↑ "News: ETH Life - das tägliche Webjournal". archiv.ethlife.ethz.ch. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
  4. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2012-04-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  5. ↑ Ordinance on the doctorate conferred by the École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne Archived 2018-01-14 at the Wayback Machine (English translation Archived 2018-04-28 at the Wayback Machine ), Federal Chancellery of Switzerland, 1 September 2008 (page visited on 5 July 2017).
  6. 1 2 "Higher Doctorates Procedure - University of Southern Queensland". policy.usq.edu.au. University of Southern Queensland. 18 January 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  7. ↑ Pages xiii and xiv of The University of London and the World of Learning, 1836–1986 by Francis Michael Longstreth Thompson. Published by Continuum International Publishing Group, 1990 ISBN   978-1-85285-032-6
  8. ↑ Haines, Catharine M. C.; Helen M. Stevens (2001). International Women in Science . ABC-CLIO. p.  115. ISBN   1-57607-090-5.
  9. ↑ Yugoslavia
  10. ↑ "Урядовий портал - найновіші надходження документів КМУ". 17 September 2016. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  11. ↑ "Structure of the U.S. Education System: Research Doctorate Degrees". U.S. Department of Education. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved 2012-02-21.
  12. ↑ "History and Organization". Harvard and Radcliffe and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 2007-07-27. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
  13. ↑ "Research Doctorate Programs". U.S. Department of Education. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
  14. ↑ "Degree Abbreviations". Harvard University. Archived from the original on 2015-10-30. Retrieved 2015-10-23.
  15. ↑ "Doctoral Degrees: Eng.Sc.D. and Ph.D." Columbia University. Archived from the original on 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2012-08-30.
  16. ↑ "Doctor of Science in Information Technology (DScIT) General Information: Middle Georgia State University". www.mga.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-09-03. Retrieved 2021-09-03.
  17. ↑ "Doctoral programs at the school". Johns Hopkins University. Archived from the original on 2007-11-02. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
  18. 1 2 "Doctoral Degree - MIT AeroAstro". aeroastro.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 3 October 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
  19. 1 2 "Doctoral degrees". MIT. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 2010-03-07.
  20. ↑ "Doctor Of Science in Computer Science". Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2018-08-27.
  21. ↑ Information Technology Doctor of Science. Towson University. 2013 "Information Technology Doctor of Science(D.Sc.) - Towson University". Archived from the original on 2013-09-21. Retrieved 2013-09-19.
  22. ↑ "Tulane University Executive Doctor of Science (ScD)". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 2010-06-11. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
  23. ↑ "University of Baltimore Doctor of Science in Information and Interaction Design (D.S.)". University of Baltimore. Archived from the original on 2015-04-18. Retrieved 2015-05-14.
  24. ↑ " Catalog 2019-2020" http://marymount.smartcatalogiq.com/2019-2020 Archived 2022-09-23 at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ "Doctorate of Science in Health Science". Rocky Mountain University of Health Professions. Archived from the original on 2017-11-13. Retrieved 2017-11-12.
  26. ↑ "Doctorate of Science in Computer Science". Aspen University. Archived from the original on 2017-09-09. Retrieved 2017-09-24.
  27. ↑ "Public Health Doctoral Program | Public Health | Zuckerberg College of Health Sciences | UMass Lowell". www.uml.edu. Retrieved 2024-06-30.
  28. ↑ "DSc in Emergency Management". Jacksonville State University. Archived from the original on 2017-09-25. Retrieved 2017-09-24.
  29. ↑ "Spertus Institute's Doctor of Science in Jewish Studies". Spertus Institute. Archived from the original on 2017-09-25. Retrieved 2017-09-24.
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  33. ↑ Capitol Technology University "Graduate Academics | Capitol Technology University". Archived from the original on 2017-07-24. Retrieved 2017-07-02. . Accessed 2017 July 2.
  34. ↑ The Doctor of Science (DSc) degree is offered in Information Assurance. Capitol College 2012—2013 Catalog, p. 56.
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  36. ↑ Ballena, Carlos. "Doctoral Programs". Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Archived from the original on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
  37. 1 2 "HSPH Department of Biostatistics Now Offering PhD Degree". Harvard School of Public Health. Archived from the original on 2007-08-16. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
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  39. ↑ "Doctorados". Sistema de Estudios de Posgrado, Universidad de Costa Rica (in Spanish). Retrieved 24 September 2024.
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  41. ↑ "Doutor é quem faz Doutorado :: Notícias JusBrasil" (in Portuguese). Jusbrasil.com.br. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
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