Scott Lilienfeld

Last updated • 11 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Scott O. Lilienfeld
Scott O. Lilienfeld at CSICON 2012.JPG
Lilienfeld at CSICon 2012
BornDecember 23, 1960
New York City, U.S.
DiedSeptember 30, 2020(2020-09-30) (aged 59)
Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.
NationalityAmerican
Alma mater University of Minnesota
Occupation(s)professor, psychologist
Notable work 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology

Scott O. Lilienfeld (December 23, 1960 – September 30, 2020) [1] was a professor of psychology at Emory University and advocate for evidence-based treatments and methods within the field. [2] [3] [4] He is known for his books 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology , Brainwashed, and others that explore and sometimes debunk psychological claims that appear in the popular press. Along with having his work featured in major U.S. newspapers and journals such as The New York Times , The New Yorker , and Scientific American , Lilienfeld made television appearances on 20/20, CNN and the CBS Evening News . [5] [6]

Contents

Background

Lilienfeld was born on December 23, 1960, to Ralph and Thelma Lilienfeld of New York, N.Y.(in the Borough of Queens). [1] Growing up, he was interested in paleontology and astronomy, but decided to study psychology after a high school course, then later a few college courses, piqued his interest. He has stated: "Although my love for natural science never waned, I eventually fell in love with the mysteries of the internal world — the human mind — even more than those of the external world." [7]

Lilienfeld studied psychology at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1982. [8] As an undergraduate, he was influenced by the work of David T. Lykken on psychopathic personality. [7] Over time, he developed an interest in personality disorders, dissociative disorders, personality assessment, anxiety disorders, psychiatric classification, pseudoscience in psychology, and evidence-based practices in clinical psychology. [7] [9] Lilienfeld considered himself a generalist, saying "this breadth makes me a better researcher and thinker" with a broad perspective on the field of psychology. [7]

In 1986, he began a clinical internship at Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which he completed in 1987. He earned a doctorate in clinical psychology from the University of Minnesota in 1990. [6]

From 1990 to 1994, Lilienfeld was an assistant professor of psychology at State University of New York in Albany, NY. From there, he moved to Emory University and served as associate professor until he earned full professorship in 2000.

In 2002, Lilienfeld founded the Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. [4] [10] He was also a consulting editor for Skeptical Inquirer [4] and Skeptic Magazine . [9] He participated on the editorial boards of the Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine , Journal of Abnormal Psychology , Psychological Assessment , Perspectives on Psychological Science and Clinical Psychology Review , [6] [9] and wrote articles for Scientific American Mind and Psychology Today . [4]

Lilienfeld was a professor of psychology at Emory University, Atlanta, GA. [4] [8] Lilienfeld died of pancreatic cancer at age 59, at his home in Atlanta, on September 30, 2020. [11] He was remembered by his colleague Stuart Vyse as "the foremost authority on pseudoscience in psychology and a preeminent scholar of psychopathology." [12]

Career

Conspiracy Panel at CSICon (Left to right: Ted Goertzel, Dave Thomas, Bob Blaskiewicz, and Scott O. Lilienfeld) Conspiracy Panel at CSICON.jpg
Conspiracy Panel at CSICon (Left to right: Ted Goertzel, Dave Thomas, Bob Blaskiewicz, and Scott O. Lilienfeld)

Lilienfeld, along with his colleague Sally Satel, has dedicated much of his career in psychology to debunking "the pop neuroscience that keeps making headlines". [13] They target such practices as functional magnetic resonance imaging (or neuroimaging) [14] to "detect" moral and spiritual centers of the brain, [15] [16] which they call "oversimplified neurononsense". [13] Their book Brainwashed: The Seductive Appeal of Mindless Neuroscience was a finalist in the Los Angeles Times Book Prize in Science in 2013. [17] He has stated:

I predict, or at least hope, that the field [of psychology] will move to a more mature and nuanced understanding of the proper role of neuroscience in psychology. This will necessitate understanding that neuroscience can offer valuable insights for certain psychological questions but that different levels of analysis are more fruitful than neuroscience for other questions. [7]

Lilienfeld has written critically about eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), [18] the use of the Rorschach test to make psychological diagnosis, [3] recovered memory therapy, [19] real-world application of the concept of microaggressions, [20] and misconceptions in autism research, such as the MMR vaccine controversy, noting that "multiple controlled studies conducted on huge international scales have debunked any statistical association between the MMR vaccine and autism", and fad treatments such as facilitated communication. [21] [22]

Lilienfeld also wrote critically about mindfulness and its derivates mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), calling its evidence "decidedly mixed", although ultimately conceded that evidence supports their usefulness in treating depression and anxiety disorders. [23]

During a James Randi Educational Foundation panel at the 2014 Amaz!ng Meeting, Lilienfeld was asked if he thought rationality could be taught. He responded that rationality and critical thinking are not natural to the human species and to some degree it can be taught, but added that they are very domain specific and may not generalise to other areas; a person can be completely rational in one area and very irrational in others. He said "I see science in many ways as a set of safeguards against confirmation bias", and that, while the structure of general science and the scientific community work to reduce confirmation bias, individual scientists are not generally as susceptible to confirmation bias as other people are. Therefore, he said, "It's up to the scientific community ... to hold their feet to the fire and make sure that their confirmation bias does not get in the way of their corroborating their own hypotheses." [24]

Following Lilienfeld's death, in 2020, the Association for Science in Autism Treatment published a tribute issue of Science in Autism Treatment [25] and invited colleagues to reflect on Lilienfeld's legacy. Psychotherapist Donald Meichenbaum remembered his scholarship and critical-mindedness and his wise insistence on healthy professional self-doubt and self-criticism. From the skeptical community, behavioral scientist Stuart Vyse pointed out that Lilienfeld, a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, "questioned and poked in all directions looking for the weaknesses of logic or evidence in any belief, while at the same time exhibiting unfailing respect for the people who might hold that belief." Shauna Bowes, a doctoral student at Emory University, emphasized the direct applicability of Lilienfeld's research to individuals' lives and remembered him as a passionate and dedicated teacher.

In his book, 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior, written with Steven Jay Lynn, John Ruscio and Barry Beyerstein, Lilienfeld examines 50 common myths about psychology and provides readers with a "myth busting kit" to help learn critical thinking skills and understand sources of psychological myths, such as word of mouth, inferring causation from correlation, and misleading film and media portrayals. Lilienfeld argues that there is a large and growing difference between traditional psychology and "pop psychology", and that personal experiences, intuition and common sense fuel pop psychology and are compelling and powerful, but are also "limiting when testing theories... about the brain". He states that hundreds of self-help books are published every year because people want "quick, easy solutions" to their problems.

The book includes such topics as the percent of brain power people use, the use of products such as Baby Einstein in child development, subliminal messaging in advertising, the use of hypnosis for memory retrieval, and symbolism in dreams. [26] [27] The 50 myths selected for the book were chosen based on personal experiences by the authors, a publisher survey of dozens of psychology professors who identified commonplace myths among their students, and myths that are "deeply embedded in popular culture", like the polygraph test and the Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus myth. The book's appendix includes "recommended websites for exploring psychomythology." [27]

Though Lilienfeld understands that books like the 50 Great Myths will do little to fix people's credulity when it comes to popular myths, he is hopeful that maybe these books will have a 1% effect on changing minds. [4]

Skepticism

Scott Lilienfeld speaks about confirmation bias at the European Skeptics Congress 2017.

Lilienfeld wrote and spoke about the need for better communication between skeptic groups, which can be insular, and the general public. He pointed out that, to debunk a myth, people need some other information to replace it, and that this is an idea skeptics have not always understood. He suggested that "skeptics should become more outspoken" when myths are presented as facts in the media. Instead of ignoring misinformation and thinking "I'm just one voice, what kind of impact can I have?", Lilienfeld supported the idea of empowering people to speak out in their area of expertise. "If everyone spoke out in their field of expertise and wrote to newspapers and television stations, we would eventually have an effect." Lilienfeld cautioned that the skeptical community needs to insist on evidence, but always keep an open mind that a claim could possibly be true. [4]

Lilienfeld taught his students what he calls the "potential warning signs of pseudoscience". Most pseudosciences, Lilienfeld says:

tend to focus more on confirming than on refuting hypotheses, casually invoke ad hoc hypotheses (escape hatches) as a means of immunizing their claims from falsification, lack the self-correcting character of mature sciences, make exaggerated claims that greatly outstrip the evidence, try to evade peer review, insist that only insiders are qualified to evaluate their claims, claim to invent entirely new paradigms out of whole cloth, and so on. [7]

Awards and fellowships

Lectures and appearances

Books

Selected articles

Related Research Articles

Paranormal events are purported phenomena described in popular culture, folk, and other non-scientific bodies of knowledge, whose existence within these contexts is described as being beyond the scope of normal scientific understanding. Notable paranormal beliefs include those that pertain to extrasensory perception, spiritualism and the pseudosciences of ghost hunting, cryptozoology, and ufology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scientific skepticism</span> Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidence

Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism, sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. In practice, the term most commonly refers to the examination of claims and theories that appear to be beyond mainstream science, rather than the routine discussions and challenges among scientists. Scientific skepticism differs from philosophical skepticism, which questions humans' ability to claim any knowledge about the nature of the world and how they perceive it, and the similar but distinct methodological skepticism, which is a systematic process of being skeptical about the truth of one's beliefs.

Facilitated communication (FC), or supported typing, is a scientifically discredited technique, which claims to allow non-verbal people, such as those with autism, to communicate. The technique involves a facilitator guiding the disabled person's arm or hand in an attempt to help them type on a keyboard or other such device which they are unable to properly use if unfacilitated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michael Shermer</span> American science writer (born 1954)

Michael Brant Shermer is an American science writer, historian of science, executive director of The Skeptics Society, and founding publisher of Skeptic magazine, a publication focused on investigating pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. The author of over a dozen books, Shermer is known for engaging in debates on pseudoscience and religion in which he emphasizes scientific skepticism.

A debunker is a person or organization that exposes or discredits claims believed to be false, exaggerated, or pretentious. The term is often associated with skeptical investigation of controversial topics such as UFOs, claimed paranormal phenomena, cryptids, conspiracy theories, alternative medicine, religion, or exploratory or fringe areas of scientific or pseudoscientific research.

The Skeptics Society is a nonprofit, member-supported organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience, superstition, and irrational beliefs. The Skeptics Society was co-founded by Michael Shermer and Pat Linse as a Los Angeles-area skeptical group to replace the defunct Southern California Skeptics. After the success of its Skeptic magazine, introduced in early 1992, it became a national and then international organization. Their stated mission "is the investigation of science and pseudoscience controversies, and the promotion of critical thinking."

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a form of psychotherapy that is a recommended treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder, but remains controversial within the psychological community. It was devised by Francine Shapiro in 1987 and originally designed to alleviate the distress associated with traumatic memories such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Charles Henry Honorton was an American parapsychologist and was one of the leaders of a collegial group of researchers who were determined to apply established scientific research methods to the examination of what they called "anomalous information transfer" and other phenomena associated with the "mind/body problem"—the idea that mind might, at least in some respects, have a physical existence independent of the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of pseudoscience</span>

The history of pseudoscience is the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called such.

Recovered-memory therapy (RMT) is a catch-all term for a controversial and scientifically discredited form of psychotherapy that critics say utilizes one or more unproven therapeutic techniques to purportedly help patients recall previously forgotten memories. Proponents of recovered memory therapy claim, contrary to evidence, that traumatic memories can be buried in the subconscious and thereby affect current behavior, and that these memories can be recovered through the use of RMT techniques. RMT is not recommended by professional mental health associations. RMT can result in patients developing false memories of sexual abuse from their childhood and events such as alien abduction which had not actually occurred.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thought Field Therapy</span> Fringe psychological treatment recognized as a pseudoscience.

Thought Field Therapy (TFT) is a fringe psychological treatment developed by American psychologist Roger Callahan. Its proponents say that it can heal a variety of mental and physical ailments through specialized "tapping" with the fingers at meridian points on the upper body and hands. The theory behind TFT is a mixture of concepts "derived from a variety of sources. Foremost among these is the ancient Chinese philosophy of chi, which is thought to be the 'life force' that flows throughout the body". Callahan also bases his theory upon applied kinesiology and physics. There is no scientific evidence that TFT is effective, and the American Psychological Association has stated that it "lacks a scientific basis" and consists of pseudoscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steven Novella</span> American neurologist, skeptic (b. 1964)

Steven Paul Novella is an American clinical neurologist and associate professor at Yale University School of Medicine. Novella is best known for his involvement in the skeptical movement as a host of The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast and as the president of the New England Skeptical Society. He is a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barry Beyerstein</span> Canadian psychologist and scientific skeptic (1947–2007)

Barry L Beyerstein was a scientific skeptic and professor of psychology at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia. Beyerstein's research explored brain mechanisms of perception and consciousness, the effects of drugs on the brain and mind, sense of smell and its lesser-known contributions to human cognition and emotion. He was founder and chair of the BC Skeptics Society, a Fellow and member of the Executive Council of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP), now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Associate editor of the Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine Journal as well as a contributor to Skeptical Inquirer, Beyerstein was one of the original faculty of CSICOP's Skeptic's Toolbox. Beyerstein was a co-founder of the Canadians for Rational Health Policy and a member of the advisory board of the Drug Policy Foundation of Washington D.C. He was a founding board member of the Canadian Foundation for Drug Policy and contributed to the International Journal of Drug Policy. According to long-time friend James Alcock, Beyerstein once addressed the House of Commons Standing Committee on Health during discussions leading up to the passage of the Controlled Substances Act". Along with his brother Dale, Barry was active in the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomasz Witkowski</span> Polish psychologist (born 1963)

Tomasz Witkowski is a Polish psychologist, skeptic and science writer. He is known for his unconventional campaigns against pseudoscience. He specializes in debunking pseudoscience, particularly in the fields of psychology, psychotherapy, and diagnostics. Witkowski also engages in debates on pseudoscience-related topics, emphasizing scientific skepticism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Klub Sceptyków Polskich</span> Critical thinking organization

Klub Sceptyków Polskich or KSP is a non-profit, non-governmental organisation actively engaged in the promotion of critical thinking, scientific skepticism and scientific methods. It unites scientists and people interested in science and scientific research in Poland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stuart Vyse</span> American psychologist specializing in superstition and irrational behavior (born 1950)

Stuart Vyse is an American psychologist, teacher, speaker and author who specializes in belief in superstitions and critical thinking. He is frequently invited as a speaker and interviewed by the media as an expert on superstitious behavior. His book Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition won the American Psychological Association's William James Book Award.

Brainspotting is a psychotherapy technique that attempts to help people process psychological trauma or other problems via eye movements. Practitioners of this technique use a pointer to direct a client’s eye gaze in order to send signals to the brain to resolve psychological or physical concerns. Brainspotting has not been rigorously studied and has frequently been characterized as a pseudoscience or fringe medicine.

Neurorealism is a concept within popular science where individuals ascribe more meaning to psychological phenomena merely because it is backed up by brain research, including brain imaging methods.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 "Lilienfeld, Scott O. 1960–". Contemporary Authors Online . Gale. 2006. Archived from the original on November 14, 2018. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  2. Bensley, D. Alan (2021). "The many valuable contributions of Scott O. Lilienfeld, scientist, skeptic, and colleague". Skeptical Inquirer. 45 (2): 29–30.
  3. 1 2 Goode, Erica (February 20, 2001). "What's in an inkblot? Some say, not much". The New York Times. No. Late Edition – Final. p. 1, Section F, column 1. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Stollznow, Karen (March 19, 2010). "Scott Lilienfeld – Real Self-Help". Point of Inquiry. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Anonymous (March 18, 2009). "School News". Citizens' Voice. Wilkes-Barre, PA. p. T.20.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Scott Lilienfeld". Center for Inquiry. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "The Champions of Psychological Science". Observer. 23 (8). October 2010. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  8. 1 2 "Scott O. Lilienfeld". Emory University. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "Scott O. Lilienfeld, PhD". Institute for Science in Medicine. Institute for Science in Medicine, Inc. Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  10. Lilienfeld, Scott O. (Spring–Summer 2002). "The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice: Our Raison d'Etre". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1 (1). Retrieved July 30, 2015.
  11. Carey, Benedict (October 16, 2020). "Scott Lilienfeld, Psychologist Who Questioned Psychology, Dies at 59". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved February 28, 2021.
  12. Vyse, Stuart (January–February 2021). "Noted Scholar and Skeptic Scott O. Lilienfeld Dies at Fifty-Nine". Skeptical Inquirer . Vol. 45, no. 1. Amherst, New York: Center for Inquiry. pp. 10–11.
  13. 1 2 Zuger, Abigail (July 30, 2013). "Guides to a Journey into the Brain [Review]". The New York Times. No. Late Edition (East Coast). New York, N.Y. p. D.2.
  14. Satel, Sally; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (June 30, 2013). "Observer: New Review: Discover: Is human behavior all in the brain – or the mind?: Neuroimaging is widely regarded as the key to understanding human behavior, explaining everything from criminal activity to why we vote the way we do. But, in their controversial new book, Brainwashed, Sally Satel and Scott O. Lilienfeld argue that this approach is not only misguided, it is dangerous". The Observer. London, UK. p. 20. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  15. Hutson, Matthew (June 12, 2013). "Lite-Brite Phrenology". The Wall Street Journal. No. Eastern Edition. p. A.15. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  16. Brooks, David (June 18, 2013). "Beyond the Brain". The New York Times. No. Late Edition – East Coast. New York, N.Y. p. A.25. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  17. "National Book Festival: Science schedule: authors include Amanda Ripley, Sally Satel, Paul Bogard, Lynn Sherr, Eric H. Cline, David Sibley, Michia Kaku". The Washington Post. August 22, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  18. Boodman, Sandra G. (October 30, 2001). "EMDR, In the eye of the storm; volunteers offer a controversial trauma therapy to Sept. 11 survivors". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. p. F.01. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
  19. "The Informed Reader/Insights and Items of Interest from Other Sources". The Wall Street Journal. No. Eastern Edition. New York, N.Y. October 12, 2007. p. B.5.
  20. Scott O. Lilienfeld. (2017). Microaggressions: Strong Claims, Inadequate Evidence. Perspectives on Psychological Science: pp.138–169.
  21. 1 2 Lilienfeld, Scott O. (March 5, 2015). "Science debunks fad autism theories, but that doesn't dissuade believers". The Conversation. The Conversation US, Inc. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  22. Scott O. Lilienfeld; Julia Marshalla; James T. Todd; Howard C. Shanec (February 2, 2015). "The persistence of fad interventions in the face of negative scientific evidence: Facilitated communication for autism as a case example". Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention. 8 (2): 62–101. doi:10.1080/17489539.2014.976332. S2CID   145366255.
  23. Lilienfeld, Scott; Arkowitz, Hal (September 1, 2014). "Is Mindfulness Good Medicine?". Scientific American. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
  24. 1 2 "Can Rationality be Taught?". JREF. JREF. Retrieved August 1, 2015.
  25. Celiberti, David. "Celebrating the Diverse Contributions of Dr. Scott Lilienfeld". Association for Science in Autism Treatment. ASAT. Archived from the original on September 6, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2021.
  26. Dalrymple, Marilyn (October 16, 2009). "Brain Profits: Psychology Myths Cost Consumers $100 Million+". McClatchy-Tribune Business News. Washington.
  27. 1 2 Anonymous (May 3, 2010). "50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology". McClatchy-Tribune Business News. Washington.
  28. "APS Establishes the Scott Lilienfeld Travel Award". Aps Observer. 33. Association for Psychological Science. June 29, 2020. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  29. Frazier, Kendrick (2020). "APS creates distinguished award in Lilienfeld's name". Skeptical Inquirer . 44 (5): 12.
  30. Gerbic, Susan (February 9, 2018). "Skeptical Adventures in Europe, Part 2". csicop.org. Committee for skeptical inquiry. Retrieved April 29, 2018.
  31. "TAM 2014 – Panel – The Psychology of Pseudoscience in Medicine". James Randi Foundation. September 17, 2014. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  32. Amarante, Joe (March 15, 2014). "Wally Lamb to read from latest 'We Are Water' at Quinnipiac University". McClatchy – Tribune Business News. Washington.
  33. Stollznow, Karen (March–April 2012). "CSICon New Orleans 2011 – Critical Thinking in the Crescent City". Skeptical Inquirer. 36 (2). Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  34. Lilienfeld, Scott. "The Ethical Duty to Know: Facilitated Communication for Autism as a Tragic Case Example". The Neuroethics Blog. Emory Center for Ethics. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
  35. Lilienfeld, Scott O., Ammirati, Rachel (July/August 2015). "Would the World Be Better Off Without Religion? A Skeptic’s Guide to the Debate" Skeptical Inquirer . 38(4).
  36. Satel, Sally; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (May 7, 2015). "The 'immature teen brain' defense and the Dzhokhar Tsarnaev trial". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 9, 2015.
  37. Satel, Sally; Lilienfeld, Scott O. (May 18, 2015). "The adolescent brain defense: The Tsarnaev death sentence and beyond". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 9, 2015.
  38. Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Arkowitz, Hal (December 6, 2007). "EMDR: Taking a closer look". Scientific American. 17 (4): 10–11. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1207-10sp.
  39. Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Arkowitz, Hal (December 6, 2007). "Is there really an autism epidemic?". Scientific American. 17 (4): 58–61. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1207-58sp.
  40. Lilienfeld, Scott O. (May–June 2006). "Why Scientists Shouldn't Be Surprised by the Popularity of Intelligent Design". Skeptical Inquirer. 30 (3). Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  41. Lilienfeld, Scott O., Wood, James M., and Garb, Howard N. (November 2000). The scientific status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest . 1(2), 27–66.