Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing

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Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a form of psychotherapy that is a recommended treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but remains controversial within the psychological community. It was devised by Francine Shapiro in 1987 and originally designed to alleviate the distress associated with traumatic memories such as PTSD.

Contents

EMDR involves focusing on traumatic memories in a manner similar to exposure therapy while engaging in side-to-side eye movements or other forms of bilateral stimulation. [1] [2] It is also used for some other psychological conditions. [3] [4]

EMDR is recommended for the treatment of PTSD by various government and medical bodies citing varying levels of evidence, including the World Health Organization, the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, and the US Departments of Veteran Affairs and Defense. The US National Institute of Medicine found insufficient evidence to recommend EMDR. [5] The American Psychological Association suggests EMDR may be useful for treating adult PTSD. [6] Treatment guidelines note EMDR effectiveness is statistically the same as trauma-focused behavioral therapy, and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council notes that this may be due to including most of the core elements of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

There is debate about how the therapy works and whether it is more effective than other established treatments. [1] [7] The eye movements have been criticized as having no scientific basis. [8] The founder promoted the therapy for the treatment of PTSD, and proponents employed untestable hypotheses to explain negative results in controlled studies. [9] EMDR has been characterized as a pseudoscientific purple hat therapy (i.e., only as effective as its underlying therapeutic methods without any contribution from its distinctive add-ons). [10] [11]

Classification and technique

EMDR adds a number of non-scientific practices to exposure therapy. [8] EMDR is classified as one of the "power therapies" alongside thought field therapy, Emotional Freedom Techniques and others –so called because these therapies are marketed as being superior to established therapies which preceded them. [12]

EMDR is typically undertaken in a series of sessions with a trained therapist. [13] The number of sessions can vary depending on the progress made. A typical EMDR therapy session lasts from 60 to 90 minutes. [14]

Trauma and PTSD

The person being treated is asked to recall an image, phrase, and emotion that represent a level of distress related to a trigger while generating one of several types of bilateral sensory input, such as side-to-side eye movements or hand tapping. [15] The 2013 World Health Organization practice guideline says that "Like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with a trauma focus, EMDR aims to reduce subjective distress and strengthen adaptive beliefs related to the traumatic event. Unlike CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR does not involve (a) detailed descriptions of the event, (b) direct challenging of beliefs, (c) extended exposure or (d) homework." [16]

Training

Shapiro was criticized for repeatedly increasing the length and expense of training and certification, allegedly in response to the results of controlled trials that cast doubt on EMDR's efficacy. [17] [18] This included requiring the completion of an EMDR training program in order to be qualified to administer EMDR properly after researchers using the initial written instructions found no difference between no-eye-movement control groups and EMDR-as-written experimental groups. Further changes in training requirements and/or the definition of EMDR included requiring level II training when researchers with level I training still found no difference between eye-movement experimental groups and no-eye-movement controls and deeming "alternate forms of bilateral stimulation" (such as finger-tapping) as variants of EMDR by the time a study found no difference between EMDR and a finger-tapping control group. [17] Such changes in definition and training for EMDR have been described as "ad hoc moves [made] when confronted by embarrassing data". [19]

Medical uses

EMDR is controversial within the psychological community. [20] [7] [21] It is used by some practitioners for trauma therapy and in the treatment of complex post-traumatic stress disorder. [22] [23]

Acute stress disorder and PTSD

Effectiveness

A Cochrane systematic review comparing EMDR with other psychotherapies in the treatment of chronic PTSD found EMDR to be just as effective as TF-CBT and more effective than the other non-TF-CBT psychotherapies. [24] [25] Caution was urged interpreting the results due to low numbers in included studies, risk of researcher bias, high drop-out rates, and overall "very low" quality of evidence for the comparisons with other psychotherapies. [24] A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the effect size of EMDR for PTSD is comparable to other evidence-based treatments, but that the strength of evidence was of a low quality, [26] indicating that the effect sizes achieved are associated with substantial uncertainty. A 2018 systematic review found moderate strength of evidence supporting the effectiveness of EMDR in reducing symptoms of PTSD and depression, as well as increasing the likelihood of patients losing their PTSD diagnosis. [27]

Many randomized trials of EMDR have been criticized for poor control groups, [28] small sample sizes, [29] [4] and other methodological flaws. [4] [24] [30] It has been called a purple hat therapy because any effectiveness is provided by the underlying therapy (or the standard treatment), not from EMDR's distinctive features. [31] [32]

There is some evidence that EMDR can be as effective as trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) for treating PTSD, though concerns have been raised about the poor quality of the underlying studies. [4] [24] In a 2021 systematic review of 13 studies, clients had mixed perceptions of the effectiveness of EMDR therapy. [33]

Medical guidelines

  • The World Health Organization's 2013 report on stress-related conditions found insufficient evidence to support EMDR for acute symptoms of traumatic stress. [34] Its 2023 guideline for mental, neurological and substance use disorders recommended EMDR with moderate evidence for adults and children in treating PTSD. [35]
  • The 2018 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies practice guidelines "strongly recommend" EMDR as an effective treatment for post-traumatic stress symptoms. [36]
  • As of 2017, the American Psychological Association "conditionally recommends" EMDR for the treatment of PTSD in adults, meaning its use is suggested rather than recommended. [6]
  • The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence's 2018 PTSD guidelines found low-to-very-low evidence of efficacy for EMDR in treating PTSD, but what was available justified recommending it for non combat-related trauma. [37] [38]
  • A 2017 joint report from the US Departments of Veterans Affairs and Defense describes the evidence for EMDR in the treatment of PTSD as "strong." [39]
  • The Australian 2013 National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines recommends EMDR for the treatment of PTSD in adults with its highest grade of evidence, noting that "EMDR now includes most of the core elements of standard trauma-focussed CBT (TF-CBT)" and "the two variants of trauma-focussed therapy are not statistically different." [40]
  • The Institute of Medicine's 2008 report on the treatment of PTSD found insufficient evidence to recommend EMDR, and criticized many of the available studies for methodological flaws including allegiance bias and insufficient controls. [5]
  • The Dutch National Steering Committee on Mental Health Care has released multidisciplinary guidelines which describe "insufficient scientific evidence" to support EMDR in the acute period following a stressful event (2008), [41] but recommend EMDR's use in chronic PTSD (2003). [42] [ page needed ]

Other conditions

EMDR has been tested on a variety of other mental health conditions with mixed results. [4]

Possible mechanisms

Incomplete processing of experiences in trauma

Many proposals of EMDR efficacy share an assumption that, as Shapiro posited, when a traumatic or very negative event occurs, information processing of the experience in memory may be incomplete. The trauma causes a disruption of normal adaptive information processing, which results in unprocessed information being dysfunctionally held in memory networks. [47] According to the 2013 World Health Organization practice guideline: "This therapy [EMDR] is based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings and behaviours are the result of unprocessed memories." [16] This proposed mechanism has no known scientific basis. [8]

Other mechanisms

Several other possible mechanisms have been proposed:

Bilateral stimulation, including eye movement

Bilateral stimulation is a generalization of the left and right repetitive eye movement technique first used by Shapiro. Alternative stimuli include auditory stimuli that alternate between left and right speakers or headphones and physical stimuli such as tapping of the therapist's hands or tapping devices. [2]

Most meta-analyses have found that the inclusion of bilateral eye-movements within EMDR makes little or no difference to its effect. [10] [53] [54] Meta-analyses have also described a high risk of allegiance bias in EMDR studies. [55] One 2013 meta-analysis with fewer exclusion criteria found a moderate effect. [56]

Pseudoscience

EMDR has been characterized as pseudoscience, because the underlying theory and primary therapeutic mechanism are unfalsifiable and non-scientific. EMDR's founder and other practitioners have used untestable hypotheses to explain studies which show no effect. [9] The results of the therapy are non-specific, especially if directed eye movements are irrelevant to the results. When these movements are removed, what remains is a broadly therapeutic interaction and deceptive marketing. [18] [57] According to neurologist Steven Novella:

[T]he false specificity of these treatments is a massive clinical distraction. Time and effort are wasted clinically in studying, perfecting, and using these methods, rather than focusing on the components of the interaction that actually work. [28]

Investigation into EMDR has been characterised by poor-quality studies, rather than tightly-controlled trials that could justify or falsify the mechanisms that have been proposed to support it. Novella writes that the research quantity nevertheless means that EMDR has claimed a place among accepted treatments and is "not likely going away anytime soon, even though it is a house of card built on nothing". [58]

EMDR has been characterised as a modern-day mesmerism, as the therapies have striking resemblances, from the sole inventor who devises the system while out walking, to the large business empire built on exaggerated claims. In the case of EMDR, these have included the suggestions that EMDR could drain violence from society and be useful in treating cancer and HIV/AIDS. [59] Psychology historian Luis Cordón has compared the popularity of EMDR to that of other cult-like pseudosciences, facilitated communication and thought field therapy. [60]

A parody website advertising "sudotherapy" created by a fictional "Fatima Shekel" appeared on the internet in the 1990s. [61] [62] [63] Proponents of EMDR described the website as libelous, since the website contained an image of a pair of shifting eyes following a cat named "Sudo", and "Fatima Shekel" has the same initials as EMDR's founder, Francine Shapiro. [63] However, no legal action took place against the website or its founders. [63]

History

EMDR was invented by Francine Shapiro in 1987.

In a workshop, Shapiro related how the idea of the therapy came to her while she was taking a walk in the woods, and discerned she had been able to cope better with disturbing thoughts when also experiencing saccadic eye movements. [64] Psychologist Gerald Rosen has expressed doubt about this description, saying that people are normally not aware of this type of eye movement. [64] Gerald Rosen and Bruce Grimley suggest that it is more likely that she developed EMDR out of her experience with neuro-linguistic programming . [65] [66] [67]

Fuelled by marketing hype, EMDR was taken up enthusiastically by therapists even while scientists remained skeptical. [60] By 2012 more than 60,000 therapists had been trained in its use. [31]

Society and culture

See also

Related Research Articles

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, domestic violence, child abuse, warfare and its associated traumas, natural disaster, traffic collision, or other threats on a person's life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play.

Direct therapeutic exposure (DTE) is a behavior therapy technique pioneered by Patrick A. Boudewyns, where stressors are vividly and safely confronted to help combat veterans, and patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder, or phobias. Exposure therapy has supporting evidence with both simple and complex traumas. A similar therapy is Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). First known publication in book form is Flooding and Implosive Therapy: Direct Therapeutic Exposure in Clinical Practice by Patrick A. Boudewyns, Robert H. Shipley. 1983. ISBN 0-306-41155-5.

Psychological trauma is an emotional response caused by severe distressing events, such as bodily injury, sexual violence, or other threats to the life of the subject or their loved ones; indirect exposure, such as from watching television news, may be extremely distressing and can produce an involuntary and possibly overwhelming physiological stress response, but does not always produce trauma per se. Examples of distressing events include violence, rape, or a terrorist attack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Complex post-traumatic stress disorder</span> Psychological disorder

Complex post-traumatic stress disorder is a stress-related mental and behavioral disorder generally occurring in response to complex traumas.

Francine Shapiro was an American psychologist and educator who originated and developed eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), a controversial form of psychotherapy for resolving the symptoms of traumatic and other disturbing life experiences.

Exposure therapy is a technique in behavior therapy to treat anxiety disorders. Exposure therapy involves exposing the patient to the anxiety source or its context. Doing so is thought to help them overcome their anxiety or distress. Numerous studies have demonstrated its effectiveness in the treatment of disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and specific phobias.

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences. Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse. They may also witness abuse of a sibling or parent, or have a mentally ill parent. These events can have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts leading to lasting negative effects on health and well-being. These events may include antisocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Additionally, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Prolonged exposure therapy (PE) is a form of behavior therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy designed to treat post-traumatic stress disorder. It is characterized by two main treatment procedures – imaginal and in vivo exposures. Imaginal exposure is repeated 'on-purpose' retelling of the trauma memory. In vivo exposure is gradually confronting situations, places, and things that are reminders of the trauma or feel dangerous. Additional procedures include processing of the trauma memory and breathing retraining.

Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) is a manualized therapy used by clinicians to help people recover from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and related conditions. It includes elements of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) treatments, one of the most widely used evidence-based therapies. A typical 12-session run of CPT has proven effective in treating PTSD across a variety of populations, including combat veterans, sexual assault victims, and refugees. CPT can be provided in individual and group treatment formats and is considered one of the most effective treatments for PTSD.

Management of post-traumatic stress disorder refers to the evidence-based therapeutic and pharmacological interventions aimed at reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and improving the quality of life for individuals affected by it. Effective approaches include trauma-focused psychotherapy as a first-line treatment, with options such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), prolonged exposure therapy, and cognitive processing therapy (CPT) demonstrating strong evidence for reducing PTSD symptoms.

Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder that can develop in women who have recently given birth. This disorder can also affect men or partners who have observed a difficult birth. Its symptoms are not distinct from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It may also be called post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth (PTSD-FC).

Trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) is an evidence-based therapeutic approach that aims at addressing the needs of individuals with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other difficulties related to traumatic life events. This treatment was developed and proposed by Drs. Anthony Mannarino, Judith Cohen, and Esther Deblinger in the 1990's. The goal of TF-CBT is to provide psychoeducation to both the victim and non-offending caregivers, then help them identify, cope, and re-regulate maladaptive emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. Research has shown TF-CBT to be effective in treating childhood PTSD and with children who have experienced or witnessed traumatic events, including but not limited to physical or sexual victimization, child maltreatment, domestic violence, community violence, accidents, natural disasters, and war. While originally studied as a treatment for children and adolescents, its use has more recently expanded to include adult patients. Additionally, TF-CBT has been applied to and found effective in treating complex posttraumatic stress disorder (cPTSD).

Ricky Greenwald is a clinical psychologist. An expert on eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), he is also the creator of progressive counting (PC), both are psychotherapy methods for resolving traumatic memories and associated symptoms. He founded the Trauma Institute & Child Trauma Institute, a non-profit organization, and is currently its executive director and chair of the faculty.

Psychosensory therapy is a form of therapeutic treatment that uses sensory stimuli to affect psychological and emotional health. In addition, psychosensory therapy is a group of therapeutic techniques that involves applying sensory inputs to treat various behaviors, mood, thoughts, symptoms, and pain. Psychosensory therapy has its roots in traditional Chinese medicine in addition to energy psychology. Some important figures in psychosensory therapy include chiropractor George Goodheart, psychiatrist John Diamond, clinical psychologist Roger Callahan, and Ronald Ruden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trauma and first responders</span> Trauma experienced by first responders

Trauma in first responders refers to the psychological trauma experienced by first responders, such as police officers, firefighters, and paramedics, often as a result of events experienced in their line of work. The nature of a first responder's occupation continuously puts them in harm's way and regularly exposes them to traumatic situations, such as people who have been harmed, injured, or killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors</span>

Internet-based treatments for trauma survivors is a growing class of online treatments that allow for an individual who has experienced trauma to seek and receive treatment without needing to attend psychotherapy in person. The progressive movement to online resources and the need for more accessible mental health services has given rise to the creation of online-based interventions aimed to help those who have experienced traumatic events. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown to be particularly effective in the treatment of trauma-related disorders and adapting CBT to an online format has been shown to be as effective as in-person CBT in the treatment of trauma. Due to its positive outcomes, CBT-based internet treatment options for trauma survivors has been an expanding field in both research and clinical settings.

Sexual trauma therapy is medical and psychological interventions provided to survivors of sexual violence aiming to treat their physical injuries and cope with mental trauma caused by the event. Examples of sexual violence include any acts of unwanted sexual actions like sexual harassment, groping, rape, and circulation of sexual content without consent.

Psychological trauma in adultswho are older, is the overall prevalence and occurrence of trauma symptoms within the older adult population.. This should not be confused with geriatric trauma. Although there is a 90% likelihood of an older adult experiencing a traumatic event, there is a lack of research on trauma in older adult populations. This makes research trends on the complex interaction between traumatic symptom presentation and considerations specifically related to the older adult population difficult to pinpoint. This article reviews the existing literature and briefly introduces various ways, apart from the occurrence of elder abuse, that psychological trauma impacts the older adult population.

Imagery Rescripting is an experiential therapeutic technique that uses imagery and imagination to intervene in traumatic memories. The process is guided by a therapist who works with the client to define ways to work with particular traumatic memories, images, or nightmares.

Brainspotting is a psychotherapy technique that attempts to help people process psychological trauma or other problems via eye movements. Practitioners of this technique use a pointer to direct a client’s eye gaze in order to send signals to the brain to resolve psychological or physical concerns. Brainspotting has not been rigorously studied and has frequently been characterized as a pseudoscience or fringe medicine.

References

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  39. ↑ Clinical Practice Guideline For The Management Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder And Acute Stress Disorder (PDF). Washington, D.C.: United States Departments of Veteran Affairs and Defense. 2017. p. 6. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
  40. ↑ National Health and Medical Research Council (2013). Australian Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder & Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PDF) (Report).
  41. ↑ Impact, the Dutch knowledge & advice centre for post-disaster psychosocial care (2008). European Multidisciplinary Guideline: Early psychosocial interventions after disasters, terrorism and other shocking events (PDF). Amsterdam-Zuidoost, Netherlands. pp. 40–41. Retrieved 21 March 2023.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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  55. ↑ Cuijpers P, Veen SC, Sijbrandij M, Yoder W, Cristea IA (May 2020). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for mental health problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. 49 (3): 165–180. doi: 10.1080/16506073.2019.1703801 . eISSN   1651-2316. hdl: 11577/3461344 . PMID   32043428. S2CID   202289231. p. [ page needed ]: EMDR was found to be significantly more effective than other therapies in the treatment of PTSD. However, these results are not convincing for a number of reasons. First, there were few studies with low risk of bias. Furthermore, studies with low risk of bias did not point at a significant difference between EMDR and other therapies. The difference between studies with low risk of bias and those with at least some risk of bias was significant and we found considerable indications for researcher allegiance. Because studies with low risk of bias found no difference between EMDR and other therapies, we conclude that there is not enough evidence to decide about the comparative effects of EMDR.
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