The Second Hunnic War commenced with Mihirakula's ascension to power in West Punjab around 515 AD, succeeding his father, Toramana. Initially, Mihirakula's authority seemed lesser compared to his father's, as indicated by numismatic evidence. In 520, Song Yun encountered the "King of the Huns" along the Jhelum River, where the Northern Wei envoy depicted him as having a violent demeanor and being responsible for massacres, resulting in an unpleasant meeting.
Mihirakula consolidated his control in India by emulating his father's initial campaign, as implied by an inscription found in a temple of the Sun at Gwalior, between the Chambal and Betwa rivers. The inscription suggests that the Sun Temple at Surāj Kund might have been a Hun temple, possibly housing a garrison. Mātrceta, rumored to be associated with King Mihirakula, could have been a beneficiary of the foundation's success, indicating ties between the Hunnic and Iranian cultures.
It is proposed that the garrison might have included individuals of Iranian descent, with a temple catering to their religious needs by combining Indian and Iranian sun gods, Surya (Bhanu) and Mithra, respectively. This religious syncretism is reminiscent of Roman legionary stations, which often contained Mithraea.
Mihirakula's domain extended from Gwalior Hill in eastern Malwa to Sialkot in northern Punjab, forming a corridor bordered by the Aulikara kingdom of Yashodharman to the southwest and the territory of the Maukharis to the northeast, who had previously seized parts of the Ganga-Yamuna Plain. This territorial expanse facilitated Mihirakula's strategic position in the region.
The Second Hunnic War
Mihirkula the Huna
The Second Hunnic War began when Mihirakula, the son of Toramana, established his position in West Punjab shortly after taking over as leader of his father shortly after 515. Based on numismatic evidence, it appears that Mihirakula led a group of Alkhan chiefs and was not as powerful as his father. Song Yun met the "King of the Huns" in 520, as we have seen above, on the banks of the Jhelum River. The Northern Wei envoy depicted the king (chiqin) as having a violent and harsh disposition and having perpetrated massacres. The meeting was unpleasant.[1]
Mihirakula tightened his hold in India by going the same path his father had taken during the latter's initial campaign. This is inferred from the one known inscription of Mihirakula, which was discovered "built into the wall in the porch of a temple of the Sun in the fortress of Gwalior," between the Chambal and Betwa rivers. The Sun Temple at Surāj Kund, where the inscription was discovered, is no longer standing; it might have been the heir to the first Sun (Surya) temple established by Mātrceta.[1]
One of the people who was rumoured to live there because of King Mihirakula (prasadena) was Mātrceta. These individuals are identified as the heirs who will benefit from the foundation's success. Consequently, the recently established Sun Temple might have served as a Hun temple, with a garrison inside the fort. A monarch named Mihirakula, which means "Family of Mihira" and is of Mitra, is a direct example of the Alkhan's Iranian ties.[1]
According to Hans T. Bakker It's possible that some of the garrison's members were of Iranian descent, and a temple that combined the sun gods of India's Surya (Bhanu) and Iran's Mithra catered to their religious needs.The Roman legionary stations contain Mithraea.[1]
It is clear that Mihirakula ruled over a wide swath of territory that connected his stronghold of Gwalior Hill in eastern Malwa to his home base of Sialkot in northern Punjab. This corridor shared borders with the Aulikara kingdom of Yashodharman to the southwest and the Maukharis' territory to the northeast, where they had previously taken over portions of the Ganga-Yamuna Plain.[1]
The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king Mihirakula, son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the Jhelum by Chinese monk Song Yun. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in Gwalior, Central India as "Lord of the Earth" in the Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula.[2] According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital Pataliputra, which was sacked and left in ruins.[3][4]:64
There was a king called Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mihirakula), who established his authority in this town (Sagala) and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception.
—Xuanzang "The Record of the Western Regions", 7th century CE[5]
The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in the Rajatarangini:[6]
Mihirakula, a man of violent acts and resembling Kāla (Death) ruled in the land which was overrun by hordes of Mlecchas... the people knew his approach by noticing the vultures, crows, and other [birds], which were flying ahead to feed on those who were being slain within his army's [reach]
Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by Yasodharman, the Aulikara king of Malwa, in the Battle of Sondani in Central India, which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The Sondani inscription in Sondani, near Mandsaur, records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,[7][Note 1] and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".[2] In a part of the Sondani inscription Yasodharman thus praises himself for having defeated king Mihirakula:[8]
Mihirakula used the Indian Gupta script on his coinage. Obv: Bust of king, with legend in Gupta script (), (Ja)yatu Mihirakula ("Let there be victory to Mihirakula").
He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king Mihirakula, whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance
The Gupta Empire emperor Narasimhagupta is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monk Xuanzang.[15][16] In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of Magadha named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta Baladitya) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".[16] Mihirakula is then said to have returned to Kashmir to retake the throne.[17][18]:168 This ended the Second Hunnic War in c. 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.[2]
"The son of that king (Kumaragupta) was the illustrious Dâmôdaragupta, by whom (his) enemies were slain, just like the demons by (the god) Dâmôdara. Breaking up the proudly stepping array of mighty elephants, belonging to the Maukhari, which had thrown aloft in battle the troops of the Hûnas (in order to trample them to death), he became unconscious (and expired in the fight)."
This resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The Sondani inscription in Sondani, near Mandsaur, records the submission by the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,[7][Note 2] and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".[22] In a part of the Sondani inscription Yasodharman thus praises himself for having defeated king Mihirakula:[8]
He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king Mihirakula, whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance
In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of Magadha named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta Baladitya) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".[16] Mihirakula is then said to have returned to Kashmir to retake the throne.[17][18]:168
Victory pillar of Yashodharman at Sondani, Mandsaur.
↑ "The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from "Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago". Punjab Monitor. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
↑ "The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from "Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago". Punjab Monitor. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
All of the royal families of these successor states including the AlchonMihirakula had embraced Saivism, which had equally profound effects. Vaisnavism had been rendered obsolete by the fall of the Empire, particularly in its former lands. A theological innovation that specifically aided in this growth was Saivism's ability to provide access to both humdrum rewards and superformance power, in addition to this political component. This was accomplished by human agent lineages personifying god. This provided the Śaiva officials with a unique advantage over their Vaisnava counterparts. This is a unique factor, while Vaisnavism's diminished political standing following the collapse of the Gupta Empire. Saivism particularly gained traction in the regions of former Gupta territories. Although Vaisnavism flourished in the regions of Kashmir and Southern India.[25]
Vajra, who succeeded Baladitya II, did not surpass his predecessor's accomplishments. Despite his construction of an additional monastery at Nalanda and his depiction as a devout Buddhist by Chinese sources, he proved incapable of resisting the formidable Yaśodharman of Malwa. However, the rapid expansion of Malava power was soon curtailed, likely through the influence of emerging feudatory royal houses rather than direct Gupta intervention.[27]
Evidence from the Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh stone inscription suggests that either Isvaravarman or his successor, presumably Isanavarman, successfully repelled a threat originating from 'the city of Dhar'. This conflict, occurring in the second quarter of the sixth century, likely corresponds to the invasion led by Yasodharman. The Maukhari kings played a significant role in opposing the Malava adventurer, receiving support from these feudatories.[27]
Through alliances with such feudatories, Kumāragupta III, the son of Narasimhagupta II, and Vishnugupta Chandraditya, the son and successor of Kumāragupta III, were able to retain control of the imperial throne until the middle of the sixth century AD. These alliances were crucial for the Gupta dynasty's survival amidst political instability and external threats.[27]
The Gupta Empire faced significant challenges during Yashodharman's conquests, as he expanded his victorious campaigns across North India. Despite initial successes, Yasodharman's ability to consolidate his conquests was limited, resulting in a short-lived reign reminiscent of a meteoric rise and fall. The circumstances surrounding his downfall remain unclear, but it is likely that the disintegration of the Gupta Empire, triggered by his victories, contributed to his demise.[28]
The emergence of powers like the Maukharis and Later Guptas during this period suggests a shifting political landscape influenced by Yashodharman's actions. It is possible that the Gupta Emperor orchestrated Yashodharman's defeat by rallying these forces against him. Alternatively, Yashodharman may have succumbed to the chaos he instigated to dismantle the Gupta Empire.[29]
Disintegration of the Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire, a beacon of stability and prosperity in ancient India, faced a tumultuous period following the demise of Budhagupta, its illustrious ruler. This era was characterized by internal discord, exacerbated by external threats, which precipitated the empire's gradual decline. Succession disputes emerged as a primary catalyst for the empire's instability, leading to fragmentation and partition. The absence of a clear line of succession plunged the Gupta realm into uncertainty, opening the door to rival claimants vying for power.[30]
Among these contenders were Narasimhagupta, Budhagupta's brother, and his successors. Narasimhagupta, known by the honorific title Baladitya, assumed the throne amidst a backdrop of political turmoil and uncertainty. However, his ascendancy was not without challenge, as other claimants, such as Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta, also sought to assert their authority. Vainyagupta's rule, centered in Bengal, and Bhanugupta's reign, commemorated in an inscription at Eran, added further complexity to the Gupta political landscape. The inscription detailing Bhanugupta's exploits suggests Gupta efforts to resist external threats, particularly the incursions of Huna chief Toramana.[31]
Narasimhagupta's reign witnessed both triumph and tragedy. His notable victory over Huna chief Mihirakula demonstrated Gupta military prowess, yet internal discord continued to erode the empire's stability. As rival factions vied for supremacy, the Gupta Empire entered a period of decline marked by territorial loss and political fragmentation. These tumultuous events marked a pivotal chapter in Gupta history, signaling the empire's eventual demise and the end of an era of unparalleled prosperity and cultural flourishing in ancient India.[32]
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire on the Indian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century CE to mid 6th century CE. It was the seventh ruling dynasty of Magadh. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period has been considered as the Golden Age of India by historians, although this characterisation has been disputed by some other historians. According to Puranic chronology the Imperial Gupta dynasty ruled for 245 years from 327 B.C.-82 B.C., while according to the currently accepted chronology the regnal period of this dynasty is 209 years from 319 A.D.-528 A D. The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by Gupta and the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta.
Yashodharman was a ruler of Malwa, in Central India, during the early part of the 6th century. He probably belonged to the Second Aulikara dynasty. He conquered much of the Indian subcontinent between c. 530-540 AD according to Mandsaur pillar inscription.
The Maukhari dynasty was a post-Gupta dynasty who controlled the vast plains of Ganga-Yamuna for over six generations from their capital at Kanyakubja. They earlier served as vassals of the Guptas and later of Harsha's Vardhana dynasty. The Maukharis established their independence during the mid 6th century. The dynasty ruled over much of Uttar Pradesh and Magadha. Around 606 CE, a large area of their empire was reconquered by the Later Guptas. According to Hieun-Tsang, the territory may have been lost to King Shashanka of the Gauda Kingdom, who declared independence circa 600CE.
Mihirakula, sometimes referred to as Mihiragula or Mahiragula, was the second and last Alchon Hun king of northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent between 502 and 530 CE. He was a son of and successor to Toramana of Huna heritage. His father ruled the Indian part of the Hephthalite Empire. Mihirakula ruled from his capital of Sagala.
Toramana also called Toramana Shahi Jauvla was a king of the Alchon Huns who ruled in northern India in the late 5th and the early 6th century CE. Toramana consolidated the Alchon power in Punjab, and conquered northern and central India including Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Toramana used the title "Great King of Kings", equivalent to "Emperor", in his inscriptions, such as the Eran boar inscription.
NarasimhaguptaBaladitya was the Gupta Emperor from 495 to 530 CE. He was son of Purugupta and probably the successor of Budhagupta.
The Aulikara dynasty, was an ancient dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of Malwa between the 4th-century CE and 6th-century CE. They were based in the Malwa (Malava) region of central India near Mandsaur, with their power center near what is now western Madhya Pradesh, southeastern Rajasthan and northeastern Gujarat. Two royal houses belonging to this clan ruled over the present-day western Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh state from c. 350 CE to 550 CE, much of it as feudatories of the Gupta Empire.
Hunas or Huna was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. The Hunas occupied areas as far south as Eran and Kausambi, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire. The Hunas were ultimately defeated by a coalition of Indian princes that included an Indian king Yasodharman and the Gupta emperor, Narasimhagupta. They defeated a Huna army and their ruler Mihirakula in 528 CE and drove them out of India. The Guptas are thought to have played only a minor role in this campaign.
Kumaragupta III was a later Gupta Emperor. He succeeded his father Narasimhagupta in about 530 CE.
Bhanugupta was one of the lesser known kings of the Gupta dynasty. He is only known from an inscription in Eran, and a mention in the Manjushri-mula-kalpa.
The Alchon Huns, also known as the Alkhan, Alchono, Alxon, Alkhon, Alakhana, and Walxon, were a nomadic people who established states in Central Asia and South Asia during the 4th and 6th centuries CE. They were first mentioned as being located in Paropamisus, and later expanded south-east, into the Punjab and Central India, as far as Eran and Kausambi. The Alchon invasion of the Indian subcontinent eradicated the Kidarite Huns who had preceded them by about a century, and contributed to the fall of the Gupta Empire, in a sense bringing an end to Classical India.
Sondani, also Sondhni, is a small village at a distance of about 4 km from Mandsaur situated on Mahu-Nimach Highway towards Mahu.
The Mandasor Pillar Inscriptions of Yashodharman are a set of Sanskrit inscriptions from early 6th-century discovered at an archaeological site at the village of Sondani (सोंधनी), about 4 kilometers south of Mandsaur (Mandasor) in northwestern Madhya Pradesh, India. These record the victory of Aulikara king Yasodharman over the Huna king Mihirakula. According to Richard Salomon, these are notable for "their outstanding literary, calligraphic and historical value". The Mandasor inscription praises Yasodharman, describes him as having rescued the earth from "rude and cruel kings of the Kali age, who delight in viciousness".
The Second Aulikara dynasty was a royal dynasty that ruled over the Malwa plateau, and at its peak under Yashodharman Vishnuvardhana controlled a vast area, consisting of almost all of Northern India and parts of Deccan plateau. It was the second royal house of the Aulikara clan.
The Battle of Sondani was a large military encounter fought in 528 CE, between the Alchon Hun emperor Mihirakula and a confederation of Indian rulers led by king Yashodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta of Gupta Empire
The rise of the Great Kushans in Bactria and Northwestern India during the first century CE significantly altered the geopolitical landscape, impacting trade routes, international relations, and regional power dynamics. Acting as intermediaries in trade, they controlled key sections of the Silk Road, redirecting commerce between China, India, and the East away from Parthian territory, challenging Parthian economic dominance.
The Aulikara-Hunnic war of 515 was a military conflict between Alchon Huns headed by Toramana and Aulikaras lead by Prakashadharma.
The Hunnic invasion of the Gupta Empire was a pivotal event in ancient Indian history, facilitated by the administrative structure of the Gupta Empire, notably its feudal system. This structure allowed the Huna king to garner support from local chiefs, aiding in their invasion. The inscriptions discovered in Eran shed light on this dynamic.
The Kingdom of Malwa was a monarchy in Central India during the Classical Era and the Early Mediaeval Era. It was established by Jayavarman in 350 and ruled by the Aulikara dynasty and the Kalachuri dynasty until 625 when it was annexed by King Harsha of Kannauj.
↑ The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script.
↑ The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script. Rev: Dotted border around Fire altar flanked by attendants, a design adopted from Sasanian coinage.
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) 
, (Ja)yatu Mihirakula ("Let there be victory to Mihirakula").
