Settler

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A depiction of the first medieval settlers arriving in Iceland, 1850 Ingolf by Raadsig.jpg
A depiction of the first medieval settlers arriving in Iceland, 1850

A settler or colonist is a person who establishes or joins a permanent presence that is separate to existing communities. The entity that settlers establish is a settlement. A settler is called a pioneer if they are among the first settling at a place that is new to the settler community. [1] While settlers can act independently, they may receive support from the government of their nation or its colonial empire, or from a non-governmental organization, as part of a larger campaign.

Contents

The process of settling land can be, and has often been, controversial; while human migration is itself a normal phenomenon, it has not been uncommon throughout human history for settlers to have arrived in already-inhabited lands without the intention of living alongside the native population. In these cases, the conflict that arises between the settlers and the natives, or Indigenous peoples, may result in warfare and possibly the dispossession of the latter within the contested territory desired, usually violently. [2]

The lifestyle of a native population is often disturbed or destroyed if they come into contact with a settler population, particularly when the settler population seeks to mostly replace them. [3] Settlers may also engender a change in culture, or alteration of the existing culture, among the natives. [4] New populations have also been created by the mixing of settlers and natives, including Cape Coloureds in South Africa and Anglo-Indians. [5] [6]

Historical usage

Chilean settlers in Baker River, Patagonia, 1935. Colonos-del-rio-Baker-Aysen.jpg
Chilean settlers in Baker River, Patagonia, 1935.

Many times throughout history, settlers occupied land that was previously inhabited by long-established peoples, who are designated as "native" or "Indigenous". The process by which Indigenous territories are settled by foreign peoples is usually called settler colonialism. [7] Such a process relies upon dispossession, often violent. [2]

In the figurative usage, a pioneer (a "person who goes first or does something first") also applies to the American English use of "pioneer" to refer to a settler –a person who has migrated to a less-densely occupied area and established permanent residence there, often to colonize the area, as recorded in the English language from at least 1605. [8] [9] In United States history, "settlers" can refer to the Europeans who were part of the process of settling lands which were new to them.

A family of Russian settlers in the Caucasus, c. 1910 Russian settlers, possibly Molokans, in the Mugan steppe of Azerbaijan. Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii.jpg
A family of Russian settlers in the Caucasus, c. 1910

The Russian Empire regularly invited Russian subjects and foreign nationals to settle in sparsely populated lands, mostly in North Asia, but also in Central Asia and the Russian Far East. [10] Such exercises resulted in the inception of Slavo-Serbia, the Volga Germans, Volhynia, Russians in Kazakhstan and Green Ukraine, among other phenomena.

Although settlers in the early modern era frequently made use of sea-routes, significant waves of settlement could also use long overland routes, as in the 19th-century cases of the Great Trek by the Boer-Afrikaners in South Africa, or of the Oregon Trail in the United States.

Anthropological usage

Anthropologists record the tribal displacement of native settlers who drive another tribe from the lands it held. Examples include:

Modern usage

Early European settlers in North America often built crude houses in the form of log cabins. Conner-prairie-log-cabin-interior.jpg
Early European settlers in North America often built crude houses in the form of log cabins.

In Canada, the term "settler" is used by some to characterise "the non-Indigenous peoples living in Canada who form the European-descended sociopolitical majority", thereby suggesting that settler colonialism is an ongoing phenomenon. The usage is controversial. [12] [13] [14]

The Pioneer by Australian artist Frederick McCubbin. The painting inspired a book and a film Frederick McCubbin - The pioneer - Google Art Project.jpg
The Pioneer by Australian artist Frederick McCubbin. The painting inspired a book and a film

In the Middle East and North Africa, there are more recent examples of settler communities being established:

Settler sociology

The right of freedom of movement may imply that anyone may settle anywhere, laws and limitations notwithstanding, and non-African modern humans, who originated in Africa, all descend from settlers who travelled elsewhere. However, various types of settlers may stand out in initial settlement-patterns:

Misfits

Societies with rigid structural institutions such as primogeniture may make it desirable for younger sons to settle elsewhere. [a] The American slogan "Go West, young man" directly addresses the young in promoting settlement of the American West. And folk-tales exemplify the role of younger brothers: the archetypal youngest son must go out into the world to seek his fortune; often he rescues and marries a (foreign) princess and inherits half of her father's kingdom. [b]

Social systems featuring habits of polygyny or of concubinage, which occurred commonly in pre-modern society, [26] [27] can generate quantities of unmarriageable young men. They can produce new ethnic groups abroad – including secondary settler-populations (descendants of settlers who themselves can become settlers) such as the Métis in Canada [28] and the Griqua people in southern Africa. [29] [30]

Trouble-makers

Britain exported indentured convicts to its North American settlements, [31] [32] and later (1788 to 1868) to the Australian colonies which convicts and ex-convicts helped to develop and to populate. [33] Russia and the Soviet Union developed and peopled much of Siberia with convicts and exiles. [34] France sent convicts to Devil's Island in French Guiana [35] [36] and exiled socialist revolutionary communards and other prisoners to New Caledonia. [37] Disgraced remittance-men might skulk on the outskirts of settler society: paid by their relatives to stay a decent distance away from the metropole. [38]

Opportunists

Frontiersmen and colonial entrepreneurs represent the classical romantic type of "sturdy-pioneer" settlers. Portuguese and Spanish conquistadors, British traders in India and pioneer planters in the early colonies of the Southern United States belong traditionally in this group. Some early colonial land-grants made ownership conditional on attracting more people via headrights – using territory to lure settlers who would recruit further settlers. Gold rushes drew many people, some of whom subsequently became settlers in remote lands (Brazil, California, and Australia, for example). [39] [40] Economic incentives have long influenced the movements of migrants [41] [42] – most recently in the form of "golden passports". [43]

Refugees

Political, religious, or economic oppression or disadvantage can induce whole sub-groups to emigrate. Anti-monarchist Norsemen traditionally settled Iceland; [44] [45] nomad tribes seek more favorable territories for temporary or permanent settlement; [46] Puritans fled from Europe to North America; Jews move to and fro across the globe; disadvantaged people from (for example) the Third World seek opportunities elsewhere.

Chain migrants

Families, fiances and fellow-villagers (for example) can follow earlier settlers to new lands. The practice of chain migration requires reverse communication or return migration, but has a long tradition with several variants. Chain migration, with voyaging to and fro, can explain the island-hopping strategies that led to the peopling of the Pacific Ocean by Austronesian peoples from about 3000 BCE onwards. [47] [48] Seventeenth-century France exported les Filles du Roy to French settlements in Canada with the aim of stabilising and boosting the population of the French settler society there. [49] In the 1950s, young women from the Netherlands arrived in New Zealand by the plane-load with a view to marrying their erstwile compatriots. [50]

Causes of emigration

The Costume of the Australasians by Edward Charles Close shows the co-existence of convicts, soldiers and free settlers in New South Wales c. 1817. Sketchbook of NSW views 1817 Close a2821039.jpg
The Costume of the Australasians by Edward Charles Close shows the co-existence of convicts, soldiers and free settlers in New South Wales c. 1817.

The reasons for the emigration of settlers vary, but often they include the following factors and incentives: the desire to start a new and better life in a foreign land, personal financial hardship, social, cultural, ethnic, or religious persecution (e.g., the Pilgrims and Mormons), penal deportation (e.g. of convicted criminals from England to Australia), political oppression, and governmental incentive-policies aimed at encouraging foreign settlement. [51] [52] [53]

Accounts of the "barbarian" Völkerwanderung of Late antiquity in Eurasia give the impression that whole tribes sometimes migrated en masse into new areas of settlement: warriors bringing their households ("women and children") with them. [54] Postulated causes of these mass-migrations include:

Settler economics

Humans have taken various approaches when starting and sustaining the settling process, and may employ such means individually, successively or in parallel:

Packing a picnic lunch

Initially, settlers come as travelers – in vehicles, on horseback, or on foot. [60] The first hours and days of settlement resemble the journey, with supplies and comestibles brought by and with the incomers. The first human settlers arriving on Mars, for example, must expect to carry with them all things needed in order for them to survive for a lengthy period of time: not just food and water, but oxygen as well; not just clothing and shelter, but protection against radiation and against low atmospheric pressure. Sustaining such an unintegrated settlement over the long haul requires careful and detailed planning.

Living off the land

A completely uninhabited target territory for settling – a true terra nullius – minimises potential land-ownership disputes. Thus the first Polynesian settlers in the Pacific Islands, [61] or the early Norse settlers in medieval Iceland and Greenland, [62] or the pioneering French settlers in the Falkland Islands/Malvinas in 1764, [63] could unload their belongings and start farming, hunting or fishing in short order. Self-sufficient settlements may result – until the economic and other processes of globalisation come to bear. [64]

Befriending the locals

Incoming settlers seen as invaders may not last long. [c] Wholesale land-grabs with a view to settlement can prove costly and provoke reaction. [d] Limited numbers of immigrants with a reputation for behaving arrogantly in a culturally hostile environment may have to operate under disadvantageous conditions. [e] It often pays to make friends with existing populations [f] and to establish mutually beneficial trading [g] or military [h] relationships: survival may depend on some degree of integration into a local environment and society. It may help incoming arrivals to find or invent a legend of invitation [i] (an invitation implies friendly agreement with at least some element of the locals, such as (for example) an oppressed tribe, or a (formerly) ruling faction fallen on hard times). Trade-oriented settlers may establish a modus vivendi with their local compradors. [73]

Exploiting the locals

Failing a speedy social integration, settlers and locals may form distinct groups, classes or castes. [j] (The "divide and rule" mantra has general application.) One group may harness the labor of another through tribute, wages, servanthood or slavery. New trading patterns may alter existing economies. [k] Social and cultural boundaries may arise. In reaction, earlier populations may move away (forcibly or voluntarily), [l] succumb to genocide, exploitation or disease, [m] or revolt.

Replacing the locals

If settlement results, by whatever means, in reducing or eliminating earlier populations, this is one possible cause of gaps in the economic system, deficiencies which may result in fewer trading opportunities, under-exploited lands and waters, and a dearth of cheap available labor. Mass new immigration can fill such gaps, but suitable volunteers may come in insufficient numbers. Enter the systems of indentured labor, [n] transported felons, [o] and imported slaves. [p]

Replicating the homeland

Where the environment permits, settlers can express a preference for familiar landscapes and economies mirroring their metropole. Thus fields of crops and clusters of commercial urban centers can emerge in distant lands. [q]

Serving the homeland

Apart from any demographic, military or strategic use, metropoles can view new settlements as suppliers of goods [r] and as markets for metropolitan products. [s] Theoretically, mercantilist practices emphasise the role of colonies in enriching the motherland. [93] But perceived exploitation of or by settlers can lead to ruptures between new lands and the settlers' ancestral homelands (as with the Thirteen Colonies in the 1770s, or Ireland in the 20th century).

Surpassing the homeland

Brazil, peopled by formerly Portuguese settlers, became the headquarters of the Portuguese Empire in 1808, then established independence and its own Brazilian Empire in 1822; Luso-Brazilians now arguably wield more heft than the citizens of their former metropole. Propaganda encouraging British settlement in New Zealand envisaged the antipodes as a "better Britain". [94] And the United States of America has somewhat outgrown its former role as a cluster of British settlements on the fringes of the north-west Atlantic to become a major force in the Anglosphere.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Winston Churchill explained British primogeniture habits: 'We give everything to the eldest and the others strive to duplicate it and found empires.' [25]
  2. ↑ Compare Aarne–Thompson type 530.
  3. ↑ For example, Viking settlement in Vinland proved short-lived. Tradition implicates conflict between the Norse and the skrælingjar . [65]
  4. ↑ In the 1940s, Nazi Germany's conquest of Lebensraum in Eastern Europe for settlement by Wehrbauern and others [66] cost millions of Reichsmarks and lives and ended in failure.
  5. ↑ Prior to 1853, Japanese authorities severely restricted the activities of foreigners operating in trading settlements such as Dejima in Japan during the Edo period of 1603 to 1868. [67]
  6. ↑ According to the myth of the First Thanksgiving, the Pilgrim Fathers in Massachusetts owed their survival to (initially) benevolent indigenes.
  7. ↑ Trading posts or factories, comprised generally of small minorities of foreigners settling in a foreign land, depend on a certain minimum of cordial relationships with at least some local contacts. Exclaves like the Hanse kontors provide examples. [68] [69]
  8. ↑ The Roman Empire settled various fleeing or defeated Germanic peoples in imperial borderlands, and employed them as auxiliary troops. [70]
  9. ↑ Thus pro-Saxon propaganda tells the tale of Vortigern and the invitations to Anglo-Saxons to settle in 5th-century sub-Roman Britain, [71] while Normanist historians make much of traditions of Eastern Slavs inviting Norsemen to come and rule over their lands. [72]
  10. ↑ As a possibly extreme example, successive waves of settlers in India contributed to shaping the complex caste system which developed there, whether they (allegedly) originated the concept [74] or merely adapted it. [75] In the United States of America, for example, some settler-descendants from Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Asia or Latin America have developed as distinct groupings. [76]
  11. ↑ In Africa, hut taxes could draw locals into the ambit of a cash economy. [77] In Siberia and Alaska, Russian promyshlennik settlers and officials demanded taxes ( yasak – "tribute") payable in furs. [78]
  12. ↑ Note for example the Trail of Tears in 19th-century North America and the Great Trek of the voortrekkers in 19th-century South Africa.
  13. ↑ Many Native Americans in the early years of Spanish settlement in the Americas died of disease or in slavery. Notably, much of the indigenous population of the Caribbean Islands disappeared from history. [79] In the 19th century, European settlers severely depleted numbers of the population of Aboriginal Tasmanians. [80]
  14. ↑ Examples of indentured labor include its operation in British colonies in America, [81] as well as the girmitiya system in places like Fiji. [82] [83]
  15. ↑ Notable examples of penal exile with the aim or side-effect of developing newly settled areas include the Imperial Russian systems of katorga (Russian: каторга) and exile [84] and the British Empire's export of convicts to colonies in America [85] and in Australia. [86]
  16. ↑ Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony imported slaves from Asia and from Madagascar (some of their descendants became the Cape Coloured and Cape Malay populations in South Africa); [87] the Atlantic slave trade had the purpose of supplying labor to settler economies in the Americas. [88]
  17. ↑ Settlers in Brazil, for example, can convert rain-forest into ranch-land; [89] and Chinese settler communities have developed Chinatowns [90] across the globe for centuries.
  18. ↑ Early-modern settlements planted by Spain and Portugal had the function of producing profitable output such as spices and precious metals. [91]
  19. ↑ Ancient Greek colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean could off-load manufactured goods (pottery, art) for trading into the hinterland. [92]

References

  1. ↑ "pioneer". Bedeutung im Cambridge Englisch Wörterbuch (in German). 1 January 2025. Retrieved 8 January 2025.
  2. 1 2 Wolfe, Patrick (December 2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research. 8 (4): 387–409. doi: 10.1080/14623520601056240 .
  3. ↑ Olson, Pamela (2013). Fast Times in Palestine. Berkeley, California: Seal Press. p. 35. ISBN   978-1-580-05483-6.
  4. ↑ Ninomiya, Melody E Morton; Burns, Nicole; Pollock, Nathaniel J; Green, Nadia T G; Martin, Jessica; Linton, Janice; Rand, Jenny R; Brubacher, Laura Jane; Keeling, Arn; Latta, Alex (June 2023). "Indigenous communities and the mental health impacts of land dispossession related to industrial resource development: a systematic review". The Lancet Planetary Health. 7 (6): e501–e517. doi: 10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00079-7 . PMID   37286247. The impacts were consequences of colonial relations that threatened Indigenous identities, resources, languages, traditions, spirituality, and ways of life.
  5. ↑ Khan, Razib (16 June 2011). "The Cape Coloureds are a mix of everything". Discover Magazine. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
  6. ↑ Mollan, Cherylann (20 February 2023). "The young Anglo-Indians retracing their European roots". BBC News. Retrieved 11 October 2025.
  7. ↑ LeFevre, Tate A. (29 May 2015). Settler Colonialism (Report). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0125 . Retrieved 19 October 2017.
  8. ↑ "Pioneer". etymonline.
  9. ↑ Compare "pioneer" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.).
  10. ↑ Greenall, Robert (23 November 2005). "Russians left behind in Central Asia". BBC News.
  11. ↑ Prehistoric Sources Technical Study, prepared for the city of Monterey by Bainbridge Behrens Moore Inc., 23 May 1977[ verification needed ]
  12. ↑ Denis, Jeffrey S. (February 2015). "Contact Theory in a Small-Town Settler-Colonial Context: The Reproduction of Laissez-Faire Racism in Indigenous-White Canadian Relations". American Sociological Review. 80 (1): 218–242. doi:10.1177/0003122414564998.
  13. ↑ Robson, John (Spring–Summer 2018). "The 'Settler' Nonsense". The Dorchester Review. 7 (2): 1–2.
  14. ↑ "Introducing yourself as a 'settler' creates division". CBC. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
  15. ↑ "A YOUNG VICTORIAN NOVELIST". Darling Downs Gazette. 21 May 1915. p. 3. Retrieved 3 January 2026.
  16. ↑ Hobby, Nathan (2022). The red witch: a biography of Katharine Susannah Prichard. Miegunyah volumes. Second numbered series. Carlton, Victoria, Australia: The Miegunyah Press. ISBN   978-0-522-87738-0.
  17. ↑ Abiew, Francis Kofi (1991). The Evolution of the Doctrine and Practice of Humanitarian Intervention. p. 146.
  18. ↑ Schneider, Jan (June 2008). "Israel". Focus Migration. 13. Hamburg Institute of International Economics. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
  19. ↑ Ben-Rafael, Eliezer; Sharot, Stephen (1991). Ethnicity, Religion and Class in Israeli Society. pp. 26–27. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511520600. ISBN   978-0-521-39229-7.
  20. ↑ Branovsky, Yael (6 May 2008). "400 olim arrive in Israel ahead of Independence Day". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
  21. ↑ Beauchamp, Zack (20 November 2018). "What are settlements, and why are they such a big deal?". Vox. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  22. ↑ "Israeli Settlements". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  23. ↑ Stefanini, Sara (31 March 2016). "Best chance Cyprus has had for peace". Politico.
  24. ↑ Shefte, Whitney (6 January 2015). "Western Sahara's stranded refugees consider renewal of Morocco conflict". the Guardian.
  25. ↑ Roberts, Andrew (28 May 2009) [2008]. Masters and Commanders: The Military Geniuses Who Led The West To Victory In World War II. London: Penguin UK. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=Ik0hRG3x0goC&pg=PT74. ISBN   9780141937854 . Retrieved 30 November 2025.
  26. ↑ Desai, Murli (30 October 2013). "Family Diversity and Rights-Based Family Policy Approach: Diversity of Families in the Pre-Modern Context". The Paradigm of International Social Development: Ideologies, Development Systems and Policy Approaches. Routledge Studies in Development and Society. New York: Routledge. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=EfbeAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT222. ISBN   9781135010249 . Retrieved 30 November 2025. Ingoldsby [...] analyzed Murdoch's Ethnographic Atlas of 1967 and found that polygyny was prevalent in 84.8% of the societies.
  27. ↑ Ravančić, Gordan (31 December 2019). "Prostitution in Late Medieval Dubrovnik: Legislation, Practice, and Prosecution". In Mielke, Christopher; Znorovszky, Andrea-Bianka (eds.). Same Bodies, Different Women: 'Other' Women in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. History and Art ISSN 2631-0562, volume 2. Budapest: Trivent Publishing. p. 98. ISBN   9786158122238 . Retrieved 2 December 2025. [...] concubinage was quite widespread and common throughout the entire medieval period in Europe [...] there was no formal prohibition of lay concubinage until the sixteenth century.
  28. ↑ Pulla, Siomonn P. (14 August 2013). "Regional Nationalism or National Mobilization? A Brief Social History of the Development of Métis Political Organization in Canada, 1815-2011". In Adams, Christopher; Dahl, Gregg; Peach, Ian (eds.). Métis in Canada: History, Identity, Law and Politics. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press. p. 405. ISBN   9780888647184 . Retrieved 2 December 2025. Stipulations under the Dominion Lands Act regarding the procedure for officially registering a parcel of land proved difficult fo Métis settlers. [...] Métis settlers [...] maintained their distinct form of land holding based on the red River system of allotment. [...] Métis settlers at St. Louis [...] refused to submit their lands to the township survey system and requested that the government resurvey their lands into river lots based on their traditional system of land holding.
  29. ↑ Schoeman, Karel (2002). The Griqua Captaincy of Philippolis, 1826-1861. Pretoria: Protea Book House. pp. 61, 98. ISBN   9781919825397 . Retrieved 4 December 2025. [...] for several years there were also complaints of attacks on the Griqua settlers and cattle raiding by the Bushmen in the area . The Griquas were, with Dr Philip's active encouragement and the blessing of the Colonial Government, moving into territory traditionally occupied by the Bushmen [...]. [...] Bushman resistance to Griqua settlement was gradually broken during the 1830s [...].
  30. ↑ Adhikari, Mohamed (4 May 2023). "Settler Genocides of San Peoples of Southern Africa, c.1700-c.1940". In Blackhawk, Ned; Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=OLbHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT118. ISBN   9781108806596 . Retrieved 4 December 2025. The Transorangian Griqua case indicates clearly that, although genocidal struggles between Indigenous peoples and European colonists have often been cast as the product of racial antagonisms, they were not principally racial in character. They were essentially about incompatible ways of vying for the same scarce resources and the right to occupy particular areas of land. Despite being Indigenous, Griqua settlers became as determined slaughterers of San as were the European colonists.
  31. ↑ Morgan, Gwenda; Rushton, Peter (18 December 2003). Eighteenth-Century Criminal Transportation: The Formation of the Criminal Atlantic (reprint ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 2–3. doi:10.1057/9780230000872. ISBN   9780230000872 . Retrieved 4 December 2025. [...] after the 1718 Transportation Act, shipping and receiving convicts became a far larger business than ever before, with hundreds a year leaving Britain for America, going mainly to the Cheaspeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland. [...] it was the British who in the eighteenth century made transportation a key element of their penal policy, and the consequences for some of their colonies were profound, both economically and culturally.
  32. ↑ Tomlins, Christopher (2006). "Indentured Servitude in Perspective: European Migration into North Amarica and the Composition of the Early American Labor Force, 1600-1775". In Matson, Cathy D. (ed.). The Economy of Early America: Historical Perspectives & New Directions. G - Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. University Park, Pennsylavania: The Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 151. ISBN   9780271027111 . Retrieved 4 December 2025. On involuntary European migration (transported convicts and other prisoners) [...] Ekirch suggests 50,000 convicts transported during the eighteenth century, Fogelmean 2,300 during the seventeenth century and 52,200 during the eighteenth.
  33. ↑ Sherington, Geoffrey (1 August 1990) [1980]. "Britain's Overseas Penal Colony". Australia's Immigrants: 1788-1988. The Australian experience (2nd ed.). Sydney: Allen & Unwin. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=e4O8XnCVOMIC&pg=PT10. ISBN   9781742696553 . Retrieved 4 December 2025. Not all who were sentenced to transportation were actually transported. Generally, it was only those under the age of fifty who had been convicted at least twice. [...] Large numbers of Australian convicts were young. Over the period of transportation up until 1851, between 27 per cent and 30 percent of London convicts were under 19 years of age. [...] Most convicts were put to work for the government or for private individuals. They formed an unpaid workforce which helped farm the colony and create the early buildings and streets around Sydney cove. [...] Those who in the mind of the authorities behaved themselves were granted 'tickets of leave' and later conditional or full pardons for their past offences. Some returned home but most remained.
  34. ↑ Jukes, Geoffrey (1973). "Soviet Asia". The Soviet Union in Asia. Australian Institute of International Affairs countries series. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 50. ISBN   9780520023932 . Retrieved 7 December 2025. Siberia resembles Australia in a number of ways [...]. Convict settlement was important in the development of it [...] the prison and concentration camp population of the USSR was at its peak during the late 1930s and 40s, and has been estimated at ten million, most of them in Siberia and the Far East. As the free population of Siberia and the Far East in 1939 was 17.3 million, the proportion of prisoners to free citizens must have been over one to two.
  35. ↑ Aldrich, Robert (10 December 2004). "Temporary Exhibitions: Changing Perspectives". Vestiges of Colonial Empire in France: Monuments, Museums and Colonial Memories (reprint ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 305. doi:10.1057/9780230005525. ISBN   9780230005525 . Retrieved 7 December 2025. [...] the penal colony in Guyane to which 67,000 prisoners were shipped until the establishments were closed after the Second World War. [...] France wanted to show its settlers as honest pioneers, not malefactors.
  36. ↑ Anderson, Clare (13 January 2022). Convicts: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 332. ISBN   9781108840729 . Retrieved 8 December 2025. [...] convicts and ex-convicts [in French Guiana] represented a stable, long-resident population for research – unlike their officers or the troops of the garrison who rotated every two years.
  37. ↑ "Daily Consular and Trade Reports, New Series, volume 1, number 44". Washington: Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce. 24 August 1910. p. 597. Retrieved 8 December 2025. In last December, the total number of convicts and ex-convicts in New Caledonia was 7,362, but of these the whereabouts of 500 were unknown; they had either escaped to Australia or New Guinea or died in the bush. Of the liberated convicts 4,783 were over 40 years of age, and only 459 were younger [...]. [...] The total white population in 1906, when a general census was taken, was 19,570 [...] in the free population, [...] of 11,656 persons 6,138 were male and 5,518 were female [...].
  38. ↑ Meriwether, Lee (November 1894). "The Great British Northwest Territory". The Cosmopolitan. Vol. 18, no. 1. Irvington-on-the Hudson, New York: Schlicht and Field. p. 18. Retrieved 8 December 2025. Another class of settler in the British Northwest Territory is composed of what are called 'Remittance' Englishmen, – the scapegraces of families of social position. The 'Remittance' Englishman does not work; his family are content if he will only keep away from England – the further away the better, so that the expense of a return ticket will insure against his returning, and care is taken never to remit at one time money enough to enable the exile to purchase a ticket for London. These Remittance settlers are picturesque features of the Territory; they toil not, neither do they spin, yet no cowboy, in all his glory, is arrayed like unto them. In London they were dandies, and wore the highest collars, and carried the biggest canes; in Alberta they wear the broadest-brimmed hats, the highest boots, and carry the most formidable-looking pistols.
  39. ↑ Russell-Wood, Anthony John Russell (30 April 2007). "Patterns of Settlement in the Portuguese Empire, 1400-1800". In Bethencourt, Francisco; Diogo Ramada Curto (eds.). Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400-1800 (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN   9780521846448 . Retrieved 10 December 2025. [...] the creation between 1711 and 1718 of mining townships in the captaincy-general of São Paulo e Minas Gerais in Brazil. [...] the towns of Vila Rica, Vila do Carmo Sabará, São João del Rei, and São José del Rei were settlement nuclei [...].
  40. ↑ The 1870 U.S. Census recorded 149,473 persons in San Francisco.
  41. ↑ Bodvarsson, Örn B.; Van den Berg, Hendrik (12 June 2009). "1.2: The Determinants of Immigration". The Economics of Immigration: Theory and Policy. Business and Economics. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-77796-0. ISBN   9783540777960 . Retrieved 10 December 2025. Economic incentives to immigrate may be a function of undesirable conditions in the source country or they may be related to attractive conditions in the destination country.
  42. ↑ Cunningham, William (1898). "32: Greece as connected with Phoenicia and Egypt: Colonisation". An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects (Ancient times). Cambridge historical series, edited by G. W. Prothero. Vol. 1. Cambridge: University Press. p. 86. Retrieved 11 December 2025. The factories and colonies, which were planted [by Greeks] on the coasts and islands of the Aegean, and later on the coasts of the Black Sea and the Western Mediterranean, closely correspond in their economic and industrial character to the settlements of the Phoenicians. [...] the sources of their material prosperity were precisely similar to those on which the wealth of the Phoenician colonies was based. They were attracted by similar natural advantages in fixing on points for settlement, and the economic policy they pursued was not dissimilar.
  43. ↑ Thym, Daniel (2023). "15.7.3 Integration and Settlement: 'Golden passport' schemes". European Migration Law. Oxford European Union Law Library. Oxford University Press. p. 502. doi:10.1093/oso/9780192894274.001.0001. ISBN   9780192894274 . Retrieved 11 December 2025. The option of quick onward movement is an important advantage of 'golden passports' over 'golden visas', which habitually require longer residence and bring about less transnational mobility [...]. Long-term residence even requires [...] five years of continuous residence.
  44. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Harald"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 934–935. Harald I. (850–933), surnamed Haarfager [...] in 872, after a great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, [Harald] found himself king over the whole country. His realm was, however, threatened by dangers from without, as large numbers of his opponents had taken refuge, not only in Iceland, then recently discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides and Faeroes, and in Scotland itself [...].
  45. ↑ Gunnar Haðarson (6 March 2017). "22: Postscript: The Subjectivity of Sturla Þórðarson". Sturla Þórðarson: Skald, Chieftain and Lawman. The Northern World, volume 78. Leiden: Brill. p. 252. ISBN   9789004342361 . Retrieved 11 December 2025. Helgi Þorláksson suggested that Sturla must have had political biases as a participant in the power struggles of the thirteenth century, and that he appears to have been an opponent of increased royal control in Iceland. Moreover, Sturla's redaction of Landnámabók explicitly describes the settlers who fled Harald Fairhair's oppression and subsequently settled in Iceland.
  46. ↑ Bold, Bat-Ochir (11 October 2013). "2: Economic conditions and their development: Migration to new pasture as traditional strategy of pasture land use". Mongolian Nomadic Society: A Reconstruction of the 'Medieval' History of Mongolia. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, number 83. Routledge. p. 51. ISBN   9781136824739 . Retrieved 12 December 2025. There is a simplified notion that nomads spontaneously migrate to places where there is good pasture. However [...] determining ecological factors are climactic conditions, the distribution of forage plants, the distribution of salty soils and the supply of water.
  47. ↑ Simanjuntak, Truman, ed. (2008). Austronesian in Sulawesi. Center for Prehistoric and Austronesian Studies. p. 46. ISBN   9786028174077 . Retrieved 15 December 2025. [...] the Austronesian migration pattern in which the migrant daughter communities would have always maintained relationships with the parent communities in the homeland.
  48. ↑ Horry, David (24 January 2018). Two Voyages. p. 11. ISBN   9780473426347 . Retrieved 16 December 2025. The Austronesians were a maritime people and their population expanded, island hopping around the South China Sea and the edge of the Pacific Ocean.
  49. ↑ Armour, Moira; Staton, Pat (1990). Canadian Women in History: A Chronology (2nd, revised ed.). Green Dragon Press. p. 3. ISBN   9780969195535 . Retrieved 17 December 2025. Between 1634 and 1673, 800 King's Daughters (Filles du roy) were recruited by religious communities and agents of the One Hundred Associates to provide wives for the men and to increase the population and to stabilize the colony. By 1663 there were 6 bachelors for each girl who had reached puberty.
  50. ↑ "Film takes brides back to start of new lives". NZ Herald. Retrieved 3 January 2026.
  51. ↑ Olsen, Daniel H.; Hill, Brian J. (2018). "Pilgrimage and Identity Along the Mormon Trail". Religious Pilgrimage Routes and Trails: Sustainable Development and Management. Wallingford UK: CAB International. pp. 234–246.
  52. ↑ Lambright, Bri. "The Ainu, Meiji Era Politics, and Its Lasting Impacts: A Historical Analysis of Racialization, Colonization, and the Creation of State and Identity in Relation to Ainu-Japanese History." (2022).
  53. ↑ King, Russell. Atlas of Human Migration
  54. ↑ Heather, Peter (19 April 2018). "barbarian migrations". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. p. 209. ISBN   9780192562463 . Retrieved 25 November 2025. [...] there is at least now a consensus that four major movements of migration involved really large military forces, namely the movements of Goths from 376, the invasion of Italy by Radagausius, the crossing of the Rhine in 406 and Theodoric's invasion of Italy. Also, there is every reason to suppose (as the sources report) that many women and children will have been caught up in these movements [...].
  55. ↑ Kean, Roger Michael; Frey, Oliver (2005). The Complete Chronicle of the Emperors of Rome. Ludlow, Shropshire: Thalamus. p. 245. ISBN   9781902886053 . Retrieved 25 November 2025. What misery the Huns inflicted on the other barbarians along the empire's edge was of little consequence , other than being the principal cause of the massed barbarian migrations of 407.
  56. ↑ Russell, Cecil Henry St. Leger (1921). "3.3. Overthrow of the Roman Empire by the Barbarians". The Tradition of the Roman Empire: A Sketch of European History. London: Macmillan and Company, Limited. pp. 51–53. Retrieved 25 November 2025. The Huns [...] indirectly caused the final crash [of the Roman Empire] [...]. But the Huns began by supplying only a first motive power [...]. [...] The Visigoths, hard pressed by the Ostrogoths and Huns, had already, since about 300, been working their way over the Danube. [...] From here began the great movement, which was to be the pioneer of all movements of the Teuton hordes.
  57. ↑ Lambshead, John (7 July 2023). "Crisis in the Third Century". The Fall of Roman Britain: and Why We Speak English. Barnsley, Yorkshire: Pen and Sword History. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=8wJ0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT66. ISBN   9781399075572 . Retrieved 25 November 2025. A perfect climatological storm hit [...] in the third century. Firstly, starting in around AD 200 precipitation levels in northern Europe fell, joined by a drop in temperature after AD 250, triggering barbarian migrations southward. Secondly, solar activity downturned notably in the mid third century impacting agriculture in all Eurasia [...]. [...] Agricultural downturn in an ancient agrarian society causes starvation, inevitably closely followed by disease and social friction.
  58. ↑ Chew, Sing C. (27 June 2008). "The Transitions". Ecological Futures: What History Can Teach Us. Trilogy on world ecological degradation. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press. p. 68. ISBN   9780759112230 . Retrieved 27 November 2025. The changing climatological condition leading to drought conditions on the steppes has also been brought up as a possibility. [...] the environment seems to be one of the major factors that underlie the Hunnic migration/incursion in the fourth century.
  59. ↑ Yanbo Guan (29 May 2025) [2011]. "The Great Migration of Eurasian Ethnic Groups: Territorial Differentiation and Spatial Changes of Ethnic Communities". Theoretical Study of Ethnogeography. Translated by Qin Li; Hong Wang; Yanqing Chen. Singapore: Springer Nature. pp. 155–156. doi:10.1007/978-981-97-3794-9. ISBN   9789819737949 . Retrieved 27 November 2025. [...] in the northern nomadic regions of the Huns during the Han dynasty, serious natural disasters occurred several times [...] droughts, snowstorms, locust plagues, epidemics, and other natural disasters are also major enemies of the survival of nomadic peoples. When these serious natural disasters strike, nomadic peoples may consider migrating out of disaster-prone areas as a last resort.
  60. ↑ For example: Sanford, Albert Hart (1916). "Pioneer Farmers of the West". The Story of Agriculture in the United States. Boston: D.C. Heath. pp. 106–107. Retrieved 20 December 2025. How did the Western settler travel to his new home? No wagon could cross the mountains in those early days, so they were obliged to go on foot or on horseback [...]. Some pushed small hand-carts before them, laden with their goods. [...] Several families with wagons went in a group [...]. Sometimes bands of movers with long pack-trains of horses filed along the valleys [...]. [...] The single traveller in search of a location to which he would later bring his family might go down the river in a canoe or in a pirogue [...].
  61. ↑ Pacific Indigenous Dialogue: On Faith, Peace, Reconciliation and Good Governance. Apia, Samoa: Alafua Campus Continuing and Community Education Programme, University of the South Pacific. 2007. p. 55. ISBN   9789820108196 . Retrieved 20 December 2025. Samoan navigators were also voyaging westwards and north-westwards [...], discovering and settling in islands as far apart as Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi in Micronesia, and Sikaiana and Luangiua near the Solomons [...] voyagers from Tahiti, Marquesas and the Cook Islands sailed north, east and southwest. Some reached Aotearoa New Zealand at different times between A.D. 500 and 1200, discovering and settling in a land that was truly terra nullius (a land without humans).
  62. ↑ Barnes, Geraldine (2001). "The Vínland voyages in saga narrative". Viking America: The First Millennium. Cambridge: Boydell & Brewer. p. 14. ISBN   9780859916080 . Retrieved 20 December 2025. Iceland and Greenland were to all intents and purposes terra nullius ('no one's land') for their Scandinavian settlers. What were presumably a small number of Irish hermits are said in Íslendingabók to have vacated Iceland without a struggle upon the arrival of the Norsemen [...] There is no indication before the middle of the twelfth century of the active presence of the natives of Greenland in either of the two Norse ssettlements [...].
  63. ↑ Lucas, Charles Prestwood; Atchley, C. (1905). "The Falkland Islands and South Georgia". A Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. 2: The West Indies (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 323–324. Retrieved 28 December 2025. The French [...], having lost Canada, were looking abroad for fresh lands to conquer and to colonize, and hoped to find them in the Southern Seas; and Bougainville, their greatest explorer, undertook to plant a colony in the Falkland Islands. The settlers, including some Acadian families, landed early in 1764, and established themselves at Port Louis at the head of Berkeley Sound on the eastern side of East Falkland.
  64. ↑ For example: Lummis, Trevor (1997). Pitcairn Island: Life and Death in Eden. London: Ashgate. p. 154. ISBN   9781859284315 . Retrieved 12 January 2026. Pitcairn had changed beyond the imaginings of the original settlers who were isolated for years and who were entirely dependent on their own resources. Pitcairn's economy ceased to be self-sufficient from the 1830s onwards.
  65. ↑ Early Man. Northwestern Archeology: 6. 1979 https://books.google.com/books?id=RC0pAQAAMAAJ . Retrieved 28 December 2025. Hopelessly outnumbered and inadequately armed, too far from home for the secure establishment of supply lines, the Norsemen ultimately abandoned their settlements and fled the marauding skraelings [...].{{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  66. ↑ Gerlach, Christian; Werth, Nicolas (2009). "State Violence – Violent Societies". In Geyer, Michael; Fitzpatrick, Sheila (eds.). Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared. Cambridge University Press. p. 152. ISBN   9780521897969 . Retrieved 13 January 2026. [...] plans for settlement and resettlement became increasingly radical – a tendency that culminated between the summer of 1941 and late 1942 with the drafting of the Generalplan Ost (General Plan for the East) and a Generalsiedlungsplan (General Plan for Settlement) for large parts of Poland and portions of the Soviet Union. The Generalsiedlungsplan also encompassed Slovenia, Bohemia and Moravia, Alsace, Lorraine, and Luxembourg. [...] In what was the most extensive of all known Nazi settlement plans, the Arbeitswissenschaftliches Institut (the Institute for Labor Science of the German Labor Front) anticipated that 100 million Germans would be needed to settle the East over the next hundred years.
  67. ↑ "New Scientist, Volume 201, Issues 2688-2701". 2009. p. 44. ISSN   0262-4079 . Retrieved 28 December 2025. [...] Dutch traders were confined to the tiny walled settlement of Dejima, an artificial island in Nagasaki Bay. Their activities were strictly controlled and their movements closely watched. All communication was through official Japanese interpreters, who ensured that foreign ideas did not slip in among the Dutch imports [...].
  68. ↑ Zimmern, Helen (1889). "The Towns in the Fourteenth Century". The Hansa Towns (2nd ed.). London: T. Fisher Unwin. pp. 93, 95. ISBN   9780598859693 . Retrieved 31 December 2025. In each foreign country the Hanseatics had always their permanent settlement, known as the Kontor, and for these they had early obtained a species of autonomy that permitted them to exercise jurisdiction according to their native laws over their own country. [...] The shrewd towns knew well how to estimate the value of such foreign settlements [...].{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  69. ↑ Wubs-Mrozewicz, Justyna (2005). "Policy, Business, Privacy – contacts made by the merchants of the Hanse Kontor in Bergen in the Late Middle Ages". In Brand, Hanno (ed.). Trade, Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange: Continuity and change in the North Sea area and the Baltic c. 1350-1750. Groninger Hanze studies, ISSN 1872-308X, part 1. Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren. p. 143. ISBN   9789065508812 . Retrieved 30 December 2025. [...] several kinds of contact were cultivated by the Hanse kontor and its merchants in Bergen. [...] Firstly, there are the kontor's contacts, mainly of a political nature. Secondly, much of the contact made by individual merchants was maintained within the legal framework established by the kontor's rules and articles, most important being the business contacts of this group. Thirdly, the merchants established contacts privately, which were contrary to the statutes or were morally dubious.
  70. ↑ Lesaffer, Randall (25 June 2009). "Suum cuique tribuere (Ancient Rome, c.1000 BC-AD 565)". European Legal History: A Cultural and Political Perspective. Translated by Arriens, Jan. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN   9780521877985 . Retrieved 29 December 2025. Prior to the invasions of the late fourth century, Germanic tribes had already been living within the [Roman] empire. It was a common Roman policy to resettle defeated enemies from outside the empire within a province. Since the first century BC, the Roman army had also taken in foreign auxiliaries. By the third and fourth centuries, Germanic auxiliaries had assumed a significant role in the imperial defence. [...] In itself, this was nothing new [...]. The assimilation of foreign tribes and peoples into the empire – and the rise of their elites to the very top of the Roman bureaucratic and military structure had been the essence of empire for several centuries. Meanwhile, many Germanic tribes, some allies of the Romans, many not, remained outside its borders.
  71. ↑ For example: Mountain, Harry (1998). The Celtic Encyclopedia. Celtic Encyclopedia Series, Harry Mountain, ISBN 1581128894, 9781581128895, volume 4. Parkland, Florida: Universal-Publishers. p. 1039. ISBN   9781581128932 . Retrieved 31 December 2025. In AD 449 Vortigern invited German warriors under the command of two brothers: Hengist and Horsa. [...] These two chieftains became very powerful and soon were inviting more of their people to come and settle in the new land. [...] Vortigern again became the ruler and invited tribes of the Germani once more to Britain.
  72. ↑ Klyuchevsky, Vasily Osipovich. Lecture Course in Russian History. Translated by Djambov, Vladimir. Vladimir Djambov. p. 155. Retrieved 31 December 2025. According to this legend, even before Rurik, the Varangians somehow settled among the Novgorodians and their neighboring Slavic and Finnish tribes [...] and took tribute from them. Then the tributaries refused to pay it and drove the Varangians back overseas. Left without the alien rulers, the natives quarreled among themselves [...] [then] sent ambassadors overseas to their acquaintances with the Varangians, to Rus', inviting those who wished to come to own the vast and abundant [...] land.
  73. ↑ Smith, Tony (1978). The French Stake in Algeria, 1945-1962. Cornell University Press. p. 19. ISBN   9780801411250 . Retrieved 31 December 2025. [...] the networks of local groups that had everywhere formed the political backbone of European rule overseas – the native aristocracies, the ethnic minorities, the settler interests, the comprador merchants, the local évolués [...].
  74. ↑ Shyam Narain (17 November 2021). Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Innovative Multi-Directional Reformist for Indian Lives. Chennai, Tamil Nadu: Notion Press. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=ARtPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT72. ISBN   9781685389246 . Retrieved 31 December 2025. Caste is not an indigenous problem but it came to India along with foreign invaders [...] the caste sytem, which entered the Indian subsontinent through the foreign invaders, resulted in the division of the entire society into thousands of castes and formation of graded inequality.
  75. ↑ Srikanta Sastri, Sondekoppa (11 May 2022). "The Vedic Society". Indian Culture: A Compendium of Indian History, Culture and Heritage. Translated by Naganath, S. Chennai, Tamil Nadu: Notion Press. p. 29. ISBN   9781638065111 . Retrieved 31 December 2025. The foreign invaders who came to India like Shakas, Greeks, Chinese and Huns did not try to dismantle the Hindu caste system. These foreign invaders were inducted into either Kshatriya or Shudra caste as its members. They wholeheartedly accepted the Brahminical religious order and got assimilated into Indian society. [...] Even the foreigners who settled in India acknowledged and assimilated some kind of caste system into their fold.
  76. ↑ Robeson, Paul (4 January 2011) [2006]. A Black Way of Seeing: From "Liberty" to Freedom. New York: Seven Stories Press. p. 1952. ISBN   9781583229620 . Retrieved 4 January 2026. In the 1790s the ruling elite, who were mainly descendants of Protestant English and German colonists, called themselves 'New Aryans.' Later, they adopted the 'WASP' self-identification. 'WASP' subsequently gave way to 'American,' [...]. [...] Consequently, those white descendants of immigrants who chose to assimilate into WASP culture likewise adopted the self-identification 'American.' This process of massive cultural assimilation of non-WASP whites has left African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Latino Americans as unassimilatable.
  77. ↑ Redding, Sean (2006). "Legal Minors and Social Children: Rural African Women, Taxation, and Witchcraft Accusations". Sorcery and Sovereignty: Taxation, Power, and Rebellion in South Africa, 1880-1963. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press. p. 155. ISBN   9780821417041 . Retrieved 4 January 2026. Hut tax did compel Africans to participate in a cash economy, even if only at a low level, because the tax could be paid only in cash.
  78. ↑ Ziegler, Dominic (8 November 2016) [2015]. "Onon". Black Dragon River: A Journey Down the Amur River Between Russia and China (reprint ed.). Penguin. p. 75. ISBN   9780143109891 . Retrieved 4 January 2026. At first Yakuts could not understand the Russians' hunger for pelts. When the first promyshlenniki offered copper kettles, the Yakuts filled each one to the brim with sable furs as payment; they seem to have thought the Russians dupes. Yet communities that accepted the czar's protection soon felt the yasak's sting. Official fur quotas demanded usually one sable pelt a year from every able-bodied male over fifteen. Then the more ruthless promyshlenniki and corrupt governors, that is to say all of the governors who have endured in the historical record, augmented official tribute with personal levies. Refusal to pay yasak brought awful retribution.
  79. ↑ "Panoscope, Issues 1-41". Panos Institute. 1987. p. 23. Retrieved 6 January 2026. 'The day Columbus set foot in the Caribbean was a sad day for indigenous people. Millions were wiped out ... their civilisation was destroyed.'
  80. ↑ Nederveen Pieterse, Jan; Parekh, Bhikhu C., eds. (1995). The Decolonization of Imagination: Culture, Knowledge and Power. London: Zed Books. p. 49. ISBN   9781856492799 . Retrieved 6 January 2026. From 1804 to 1830, the Tasmanian aborigines were harassed and killed with a haphazard but predictable ruthlessness that makes their extinction both unmysterious and unspecial in the history of genocides.
  81. ↑ Galenson, David (1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis" . The Journal of Economic History. 44 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1017/s002205070003134x . Retrieved 6 January 2026. Indentured servitude appeared in Virginia by 1620. Initially a device used to transport European workers to the New World, over time servitude dwindled as black slavery grew in importance in the British colonies.
  82. ↑ Lal, Brij V. (2004) [1983]. Girmitiyas: The Origins of the Fiji Indians. Lautoka: Fiji Institute of Applied Studies. ISBN   9789823010236 . Retrieved 6 January 2026.
  83. ↑ Jones, Robyn; Pinheiro, Leonardo (2000). Fiji. Lonely Planet guides (5 ed.). Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet. p. 19. ISBN   9780864426796 . Retrieved 6 January 2026. In 1878, negotiations were made with the Indian government for people to come to work in Fiji. The contracts were for five years, after which the labourers, or girmitiyas , were free to return to India at their own expense. If they stayed for anothed five years the return passage would be paid.
  84. ↑ For example: Gentes, Andrew A. (20 October 2017). "Siberian Exile, 1590–1863". The Mass Deportation of Poles to Siberia, 1863-1880. Cham, Zug: Springer. p. 32. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60958-4. ISBN   9783319609584 . Retrieved 8 January 2026. Each [settlement] had a so-called 'overseer' and a detachment of Cossacks and operated according to martial rules. The exile-settlers were predominantly male, but the regime rounded up as many female convicts as it could and distributed them as a reward for good behavior. [...] Between 1829 and 1840, St. Petersburg exiled a total of 31,264 men and women to Eniseisk Province.
  85. ↑ Morgan, Gwenda; Rushton, Peter (18 December 2003). Eighteenth-Century Criminal Transportation (reprint ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230000872. ISBN   9780230000872 . Retrieved 8 January 2026.
  86. ↑ Hughes, Robert (2003) [1986]. The Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia, 1787-1868. Tom Keneally Centre Research Collection (reprint ed.). Vintage. ISBN   9780099459156 . Retrieved 8 January 2026.
  87. ↑ Worden, Nigel; Crais, Clifton C., eds. (1994). Breaking the Chains: Slavery and Its Legacy in the Nineteenth-century Cape Colony. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. p. 6. ISBN   9781868142675 . Retrieved 8 January 2026. [...] the period of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) rule in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries [...] was the heyday of the slave system, associated with the evolution of a distinct settler society and economy.
  88. ↑ For example: De Ferranti, David M., ed. (1 January 2004). "Historical Roots of Inequality in Latin America". Inequality in Latin America: Breaking with History?. World Bank Latin American and Caribbean studies: Viewpoints. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications. p. 110. ISBN   9780821356654 . Retrieved 8 January 2026. With the 'technology' of gang labor, sugar could be produced at a very low cost on large slave plantations. Brazilian planters tapped the readily available supply made possible by a world market in slaves. In the country's first 250 years, roughly 70 percent of the immigrants to this Portuguese colony arrived in chains.
  89. ↑ Petit, Charles (1989). "The rain forest that became a ranch". The Vanishing Rain Forest (reprint ed.). Chronicle Publishing Company. p. 8. Retrieved 9 January 2026. Marcelo Caliu runs one of the modern multi-use ranches opened up in the rain forest [...].
  90. ↑ Künnemann, Vanessa; Mayer, Ruth, eds. (22 March 2012) [2011]. Chinatowns in a Transnational World: Myths and Realities of an Urban Phenomenon (reprint ed.). Routledge. ISBN   9781136709241 . Retrieved 9 January 2026.
  91. ↑ Pach, Sigismund P. (18 March 2019). "Favourable and unfavourable conditions for capitalist growth: the shift of international trade routes in the 15th to 17th centuries". In Lane, Frederic C. (ed.). Fourth International Conference of Economic History, Bloomington 1968 / Quatrième Conférence Internationale d'Histoire Économique. Congrès et Colloques, volume 14 (reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 59. ISBN   9783111416953 . Retrieved 9 January 2026. During the 16th century Spain and Portugal used the new sea routes to import precious metals, which were acquired from the colonies through the exploitation of the newly discovered deposits by slave labor, and the main commodities of the medieval long-haul trade, such as pepper and other spices.
  92. ↑ Sherwood, Kathleen Donahue (2006). "Massilia". In Wilson, Nigel Guy (ed.). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece (reprint ed.). New York: Psychology Press. p. 452. ISBN   9780415973342 . Retrieved 11 January 2026. Earlier prestige gifts present at native inland sites consist of Rhodian bronzes, perhaps carried by an overland route through the Alps from Italy; Athenian pottery is not present. Suddenly in the second half of the 6th century wares from Attica appear in the interior. It seems that Athenian ceramics were passing through Massilia, then being transported upriver to sites in the hinterland.
  93. ↑ Truxes, Thomas M. (1 May 2025). "Merchants and trade in the eighteenth-century Atlantic world". In Morgan, Kenneth (ed.). The Routledge History of the Modern Maritime World since 1500. Routledge Histories. London: Taylor & Francis. p.  https://books.google.com/books?id=44pQEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT350. ISBN   9781040331064 . Retrieved 11 January 2026. As applied in the Atlantic economy, mercantilism envisioned colonial dependence on the manufactures of the metropole and the channelling of the produce of American forests, farms, plantations, and fisheries back to the metropole. If this could be achieved, wrote the Englishman John Cary in 1695, the 'chief profit' of colonies ought to 'redound to the centre.' But the expectation of the state that trade could be confined to narrow channels in this highly competitive environment bordered on fantasy.
  94. ↑ Fry, Julie; Wilson, Peter (9 April 2018). "2: Where did we come from? A Better Britain". Better Lives: Migration, Wellbeing and New Zealand. BWB Texts, volume 65. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. p. 10. doi:10.7810/9781988533759. ISBN   9781988533766 . Retrieved 12 January 2026. Between 1840 and 1852, the New Zealand Company was responsible for bringing 14,000 of the 18,000 settlers who came to New Zealand. [...] The company's objective was to build a 'better Britain' [...].
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