Temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East

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Primorsky Krai Map Primorsky Krai Map.png
Primorsky Krai Map

The temperate rainforests of the Russian Far East are within the Russian federal subjects Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai and contains the Sikhote-Alin mountain range. Found within the Russian Federation, this area is one of the most productive and diverse forests in the world and also contains one of the highest endangered species densities on Earth. [1] While most temperate rainforests around the world have retained only a fraction of their historical range, these forests maintain the majority of their former range and almost all of their historical biodiversity. [1] The region is also notable for having what has become the last remaining large tract of viable habitat for the critically endangered Amur tiger and Amur leopard.

Contents

History

Maximovka valley Maximovka valley.jpg
Maximovka valley

The Russian Federation contains one sixth of the world’s land mass and around half of the country’s territory is what could be considered continuous wilderness, with large expanses of boreal forests providing relatively untouched habitat for an extremely wide diversity of species. The temperate rainforests are located at the intersection of the Pacific tectonic plate and the Eurasian continent’s plate in far southeastern Russia, forming an area with a unique set of characteristics seen no where else in the world. [2] During the last glacial maximum, the area was not glaciated, allowing for the development of a complex ecosystem containing species with origins in Siberia’s boreal forest and Manchuria’s subtropical forests. [2] Historically these forests ranged from the southeastern Pacific coast of Russia, North Korea, and into northern China, however large amounts of human development (in China especially) has limited the forest to its current range in the Russian Far East. [2] In 2001, UNESCO recognized a 1.5 million hectare area of forest in the central part of the Sikhote-Alin mountains as a World Heritage Site in Russia, citing the area as one of the most unique and valuable areas of intact forest in the world [3]

Geography

These forests are found dispersed throughout the Sikhote-Alin mountain range, which extend over 1000 km along the west coast of the Sea of Japan. The mountains have a maximum height of 1850 m, while the average elevation within the range is around 1000 m. [1] The major rivers include the Ussuri, which acts as the western border with China and empties into the Amur river, which in turn flows northeast to empties into the Sea of Okhotsk. The Bikin and Iman rivers act as tributaries to the Ussuri, flowing west from the Sikhote-Alin mountain range.

Sikhote-Alin mountain range in winter Iakut-gora.jpg
Sikhote-Alin mountain range in winter

Climate

Known as the "Ussuri taiga," this region of Russia has long, cold winters and fairly mild summers to go along with a mean precipitation of 800–1000 mm per year. [2] During the summer and fall, a monsoonal influence brings tropical storms and typhoons coming from the southeast, resulting in substantial rainfall. [2] Fog occurs as a result of difference in temperatures between the continent and the ocean, resulting in more moderate temperatures, higher humidities; helping to prevent substantial water loss from occurring due to evapotranspiration. [2] Continental winds coming in from Siberia bring cooler, dry air during winter, resulting in lighter precipitation (30–50 cm of snow). [2] Winters can be long and bitterly cold with January mean temperatures ranging from -15 to -20 °C and snow covering the forest floor from October to April. [4] The driest parts of the year are from April to June and September to October, which also happen to coincide with the greatest threat of forest fire. [2]

Species

The forests fall in the transition zone between two biomes: the southern Asian hardwood forest and the northern coniferous forest. [5] There have been around 2500 species of vascular plants and 300 vertebrate species recorded in Primorsky Krai. [5]

A Gmelin larch (Larix gmelini) stand in the Russian Far East Larix gmelinii0.jpg
A Gmelin larch (Larix gmelini) stand in the Russian Far East

The forest is a mix of broadleaf and conifer, with the forest type becoming more conifer dominated at higher elevations and more broad-leaf-conifer mixed at the lower elevations and within valleys. The most common species include the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and Manchurian fir (Abies holophylla) at the lowest elevations and coastlines. Jezo spruce (Picea jezoensis) and Khingan fir (Abies nephrolepis) are common species to be found from 700–1400 meters. [2] Other tree species include Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), silver birch (Betula platyphylla), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), trembling aspen (Populus tremula), Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila), Erman's birch (Betula ermanii), and Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii), a deciduous conifer common throughout, but dominant in the northernmost reaches of the forest [5] The Amur region of Russia holds the last remaining habitats for the critically endangered Siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and Manchurian sika deer. It has been estimated that there are less the 600 tigers. [6] and around 90 leopards left in the wild. [7] The area also contains populations of Asiatic black bears, Kamchatka brown bears, and Mongolian grey wolves, as the Russian Far East, altogether, might probably be the only place in the world where endangered tigers, leopards, bears, and grey wolves coexist. This region also happens to be some of the last of habitat of the Blakiston’s fish owl (Bubo blakistoni); along with being the world’s largest owl, it is unique in the way that it eats fish (primarily Masu salmon) and relies on old growth forests along river banks to hunt, nest, and breed. [8] The Siberian grouse is similar to the spruce grouse and Franklin's grouse of North America, and can be found in the dense, remote pockets of broadleaf, coniferous and deciduous forests of Far East Russia. Common ungulates include red deer, roe deer, wild boar, Manchurian moose, and musk deer.

Korean pine and Jezo spruce mixed forest along the Bikin River. Bikin, verkhov'ia.jpg
Korean pine and Jezo spruce mixed forest along the Bikin River.

Forest structure and disturbances

Fire and logging constitute the primary disturbances in this area, both of which are occurring at an increasing frequency. [4] Illegal logging practices, along with a political climate more favorable to multinational logging corporations has drastically increased the amount of timber taken per year. [5] The occurrence of Korean pine in dominant forests has been declining as more common and more intense wildfires start to take their toll on the species, limiting its ability to recover and changing areas that were once dominated by old growth Korean pine to Mongolian oak and birch forests. [5] [6] Above 700–800 meters in altitude, the forest type transitions from broadleaf to coniferous, dominated by Jezo spruce and Manchurian fir. The further to the north, the altitudinal gradient decreases with the increase in latitude, resulting in coniferous forests at sea level at 47° N latitude. [6]

Conservation

Under the USSR control, conservation strategies focused on the creation and a network of strictly protected nature reserves, called zapovednik and partially protected wildlife refuges, called zakaznik. [6] These conservation strategies were largely successful and well maintained, as 85 zapovedniks and 26 national parks remained within Russian control after the fall of the Soviet Union in December 1991. Following the break up, a period of economic hardship has ensued in Russia, resulting in conservation funding cuts and increases in illegal logging and poaching, casting serious doubt on the viabilities of the protected areas and the many rare and endemic species that they contain. [9]

Amur (Siberian) tiger Siberian tiger hanging at bar.jpg
Amur (Siberian) tiger

Conservation policies have been falling from federal control down to a regional level, which creates funding and enforcement challenges, but also allows for a more grass-roots, bottom up approach to conservation, which despite the challenges has seen some success. Much of the recent funding for conservation studies and implementation of legislation comes from donors and organizations in the United States, where investing in conserving the biodiversity in the Russian Far East is seen as a good economic investment. [9] At a species level, Korean pine is a highly valued type of timber, and although the logging of the species is restricted, illegal logging practices thrive due to a lack of enforcement. [9] Korean pine forests also receive the most interest when it comes to conservationists, as they have been found to have the highest densities of tigers and their prey. Because of this, it appears that the longevity of the temperate rain forests in the Russian Far East will most likely depend on the success of the habitat conservation efforts for the endangered species found there, particularly those for the Amur tiger. [9]

Related Research Articles

The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the global conservation organization, as priorities for conservation. According to WWF, an ecoregion is defined as a "relatively large unit of land or water containing a characteristic set of natural communities that share a large majority of their species dynamics, and environmental conditions". For example, based on their levels of endemism, Madagascar gets multiple listings, ancient Lake Baikal gets one, and the North American Great Lakes get none.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siberian tiger</span> Tiger population in Northeast Asia

The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger is a population of the tiger subspecies Panthera tigris tigris native to the Russian Far East, Northeast China and possibly North Korea. It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, but currently inhabits mainly the Sikhote-Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade because of intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining. An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480–540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs. This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia. As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sikhote-Alin</span> Mountain range in southeastern Russia

The Sikhote-Alin is a mountain range in Primorsky and Khabarovsk Krais, Russia, extending about 900 kilometres (560 mi) to the northeast of the Russian Pacific seaport of Vladivostok. The highest summits are Tordoki Yani at 2,077 metres (6,814 ft) above sea level, Ko Mountain in Khabarovsk Krai and Anik Mountain in Primorsky Krai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manchurian hare</span> Species of mammal

The Manchurian hare is a species of hare found in northeastern China and Russia, the Amur River basin, and the higher mountains of northern North Korea. It lives in forests and the IUCN has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ussuri brown bear</span> Subspecies of carnivore

The Ussuri brown bear, also known as the Ezo brown bear, Russian grizzly bear, or the black grizzly bear, is a subspecies of the brown bear or a population of the Eurasian brown bear. One of the largest brown bears, a very large Ussuri brown bear may approach the Kodiak bear in size. It is not to be confused with the North American grizzly bear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kedrovaya Pad Nature Reserve</span> Strict nature reserve in Primorsky Krai, Russia

Kedrovaya Pad is a nature reserve on the territory of Khasansky District in the south of Primorsky Krai, Russia. As of 2011, it occupies an area of 178.97 square kilometers (69.10 sq mi), about one thousandth of the total area of Primorsky Krai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife of Russia</span>

The wildlife of Russia inhabits terrain that extends across 12 time zones and from the tundra region in the far north to the Caucasus Mountains and prairies in the south, including temperate forests which cover 70% of the country. Russia's forests comprise 22% of the forest in the world as well as 33% of all temperate forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amur leopard</span> Leopard subspecies in Far East Asia

The Amur leopard is a leopard subspecies native to the Primorye region of southeastern Russia and northern China. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as in 2007, only 19–26 wild leopards were estimated to survive in southeastern Russia and northeastern China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zov Tigra National Park</span> National Park in Russia

Zov Tigra National Park, is a mountainous refuge for the endangered Amur Tiger. The park encompasses an area of 83,384 hectares on the southeast coast of Russia's Far East in the federal district Primorsky Krai. The park is about 100 km northeast of Vladivostok, on both the eastern and western slopes of the southern Sikhote-Alin mountain range, a range that runs north-south through the Primorsky Krai. The relatively warm waters of the Sea of Japan are to the east, the Korean peninsula to the south, and China to the West. The terrain in rugged and difficult to access, with heavily forested taiga coexisting with tropical species of animals and birds. The park is relatively isolated from human development, and functions as a conservation reserve. Tourists may visit the portions of the park marked for recreation, but entry to the protected zones is only possible in the company of park rangers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anyuysky National Park</span> National park in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia

Anyuysky National Park covers the basin of the Anyuy River, on the west slope of the Central Sikhote-Alin Mountain range in the Russian Far East. The Anyuy flows west into the Amur River, the main river of the region, as it flows northeast into the Sea of Okhotsk. The park is important because it creates an ecological corridor from the low floodplain of the Amur, to the high forested mountains of the Sikhote-Alin. The park is in the Nanaysky District in Khabarovsk Krai, about 50 miles downstream of the city of Khabarovsk. The area is remote, with few towns and sparse population. The area has historically depended on salmon fishing, logging, and hunting. The local indigenous people are the Nanai people, representing about a quarter of the nearby settlements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Udegeyskaya Legenda National Park</span> National park in Primorsky Krai, Russia

Udegeyskaya Legenda National Park covers the richest coniferous-deciduous forest on the western slope of the Central Sikhote-Alin mountains of the Russian Far East. The Sikhote-Alin is a range that runs north-south through Primorsky Krai. The park is designed to protect west-slope river valley habitat, and to support the remnant of the indigenous Udege people. The area is known for abundant fishing and boating on the streams and rivers. It is also a refuge for the endangered Amur tiger. The park is roughly midway between the city of Vladivostok, and Khabarovsk. The relatively warm waters of the Sea of Japan are to the east, the Korean peninsula to the south, and China to the West.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bikin National Park</span>

Bikin National Park was created on November 3, 2015 to protect the largest remaining old-growth mixed forest in the Northern Hemisphere, as well as the territory of 10% of all Amur tigers in the wild. The park was also created for the purpose of protecting the forest culture of the 600 indigenous inhabitants of the Bikin River Basin living in the territory - Udeghes and Nanai people. Because of its size for pristine forest, and its characterization as a "temperate rain forest", it has an important status as a center for biodiversity of both plants and animals. The park sits in the administrative region of Pozharsky District, in Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East on the west slope of the Sikhote-Alin mountains. The Bikin River Valley is also a World Heritage site.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lazovsky Nature Reserve</span> Nature reserve in Primorsky Krai, Russia

Lazovski Nature Reserve is a Russian 'zapovednik' that sits on the southeastern slopes of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range, down to the coast of the Sea of Japan, in Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East about 150 km due east of Vladivostok. The reserve is 95% forested, with the largest stand of yew trees in the Russian Far East, and has been the subject of scientific study since the 1800s for its rich communities of plants and animals found in the transition mountain to maritime zones in a temperate, rainy forest. Lazonvsky Reserve contains more species than any other reserve in the Russian Far East, and 60% of the species in the Priomorky region are found on the reserve. It is jointly managed with the Zov Tigra National Park, located about 50 km to the northwest. The reserve is situated entirely within the Lazovsky District of Primorsky Krai. The reserve was created in 1957, and covers an area of 120,989 ha (467.14 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Komsomolsk Nature Reserve</span> Strict nature reserve in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia

Komsomolsk Nature Reserve is a Russian 'zapovednik', encompassing the confluence of the Gorin River and the Amur River in the Russian Far East. The reserve protects a meeting zone of multiple ecoregions in the lower Amur, including the northernmost reach of Manchurian taiga. It is located about 50 km downstream (east) of Komsomolsk-on-Amur, in the Komsomolsky District of Khabarovsk Krai. The reserve was created in 1963, and covers an area of 64,278 ha (248.18 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bastak Nature Reserve</span> Nature reserve in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia

Bastak Nature Reserve is a Russian 'zapovednik' located in the Amur River basin in the Russian Far East. The reserve's territory covers the south-eastern spurs Bureya Range and the northern outskirts of the Sredneamurskaya lowlands. The reserve is situated in about 10 km north of the city of Birobidzhan in the Birobidzhansky District, and is the only national reserve in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bolon Nature Reserve</span> Nature reserve in Khabarovsk Krai, Russia

Bolon Nature Reserve is the oldest Russian 'zapovednik' in the Russian Far East. It is located on the Middle Amur River lowlands adjacent to the south-west of Lake Bolon. The reserve covers the wetlands of international importance. Large numbers of migratory waterfowl use the area for nesting and stopovers on long flights. The reserve is situated half way between the city of Khabarovsk and Komsomolsk-on-Amur, in the Amursky District of Khabarovsk Krai. The reserve was created in 1997, and covers an area of 100,000 ha (390 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Botcha Nature Reserve</span> Nature reserve in KhabarovskKrai, Russia

Botcha Nature Reserve is a Russian 'zapovednik'. It is the northernmost reserve inhabited by the endangered Amur Tiger. The reserve is located in the north-eastern part of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range; it includes the Botchi River basin on its eastern slopes. The reserve is about 120 km south of the port city of Sovetskaya Gavan in the Sovetsko-Gavansky District of Khabarovsk Krai. The reserve was created in 1994, and covers an area of 267,380 ha (1,032.4 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ussurisky Nature Reserve</span> Strict nature reserve in Primorsky Krai, Russia

Ussurisky Nature Reserve is a Russian 'zapovednik' that protects one of the remaining virgin mixed deciduous-conifer forests in the Primorsky (Maritime) region of the Russian Far East. The mountainous terrain is located on a southern spur of the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, in the upper reaches of the Komarovka River, about 50 km northeast of the city of Vladivostok. The reserve is named after Vladimir L. Komarov, an important early botanist and early explorer of the Primorsky region. The Ussursisky Reserve is situated in the Shkotovsky District of Primorsky Krai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Okhotsk–Manchurian taiga</span> Ecoregion in the Russian Far East

The Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga ecoregion is an area of coniferous forests in the Russian Far East, covering the Amur River delta, the west coast of the Okhotsk Sea, and the rugged extension of the northern Sikhote-Alin Mountains that run southwest-to-northeast through the Primorsky and Khabarovsk regions. It is the southernmost taiga forest in Eurasia. The ecoregion is distinguished from surrounding ecoregions by the slightly warmer climate due to the maritime influence and the shield of the mountains to the west, and by the mixing of flora and fauna species from Okhotsk-Kamchatka communities to the north and Manchurian species from the south. The forest at lower altitudes is "light taiga", and "dark taiga" at higher altitudes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ussuri broadleaf and mixed forests</span>

The Ussuri broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion covers a mountainous areas above the lower Amur River and Ussuri River in Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai in the Russian Far East. The ecoregion is in the Palearctic realm, with a Humid Continental climate. It covers 187,357 km2 (72,339 sq mi).

References

  1. 1 2 3 Cushman, S. A., & Wallin, D. O. (2000). Rates and patterns of landscape change in the Central Sikhote-alin Mountains, Russian Far East. Landscape Ecology, 15(7), 643-659
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 DellaSala D. 2011. Temperate and Boreal Rainforests of the World. Island Press
  3. ↑ Central Sikhote-Alin. (n.d.). Retrieved November 22, 2014, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/766
  4. 1 2 Kobayashi, M. A. K. O. T. O., NEMILOSTIV, Y. P., ZYRYANOVA, O. A., KAJIMOTO, T., MATSUURA, Y., YOSHIDA, T., ... & KOIKE, T. (2007). Regeneration after Forest Fires in mixed Conifer Broad-leaved Forests of the Amur Region in Far Eastern Russia: the Relationship between Species Specific Traits Against Fire and Recent Fire Regimes. Eurasian Journal of Forest Research, 10(1), 51-58,
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Cushman, S. A., & Wallin, D. O. (2002). Separating the effects of environmental, spatial and disturbance factors on forest community structure in the Russian Far East. Forest Ecology and Management, 168(1), 201-215
  6. 1 2 3 4 Carroll, C., & Miquelle, D. G. (2006). Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East: the role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43(6), 1056-1068
  7. ↑ Uphyrkina, O., Miquelle, D., Quigley, H., Driscoll, C., & O'Brien, S. J. (2002). Conservation genetics of the Far Eastern leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis). Journal of Heredity, 93(5), 303-311
  8. ↑ WCS Study: Huge Trees Help Huge Salmon-Eating Owl. (2013, August 15). Retrieved November 22, 2014, from http://www.wcs.org/press/press-releases/rare-blakiston-fish-owls.aspx
  9. 1 2 3 4 Dinerstein, E., Krever, V., Olson, D. M., & Williams, L. (1994). An emergency strategy to rescue Russia's biological diversity. Conservation Biology, 934-939
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