Third culture kid

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Third culture kids (TCK) or third culture individuals (TCI) are people who were raised in a culture other than their parents' or the culture of their country of nationality, and also live in a different environment during a significant part of their child development years. [1] They typically are exposed to a greater volume and variety of cultural influences than those who grow up in one particular cultural setting. [2] The term applies to both adults and children, as the term kid refers to the individual's formative or developmental years. However, for clarification, sometimes the term adult third culture kid (ATCK) is used.

Contents

TCKs move between cultures before they have had the opportunity to fully develop their personal and cultural identity. [3] The first culture of such individuals refers to the culture of the country from which the parents originated, the second culture refers to the culture in which the family currently resides, and the third culture refers to the distinct cultural ties among all third culture individuals that share no connection to the first two cultures. [4] [5] [6]

In the early 21st century, the number of bilingual children in the world was about the same as the number of monolingual children. [7] TCKs are often exposed to a second (or third, fourth, etc.) language while living in their host culture, being physically exposed to the environment where the native language is used in practical aspects of life. "TCKs learn some languages in schools abroad and some in their homes or in the marketplaces of a foreign land. ... Some pick up languages from the nannies in the home or from playmates in the neighborhood". [8] This language immersion is why TCKs are often bilingual, and sometimes even multilingual. [1]

Origins

A banner from the National Multicultural Festival in Canberra, Australia National Multicultural Festival (6856303265).jpg
A banner from the National Multicultural Festival in Canberra, Australia

The term third culture kid was first coined by researchers John and Ruth Useem in the 1950s, who used it to describe the children of American citizens working and living abroad. [4] Ruth Useem first used the term after her second year-long visit to India with her fellow sociologist/anthropologist husband and three children. [9]

Useem et al. (1963) depicted individuals who have undergone such an experience as having distinct standards of interpersonal behavior, work-related norms, codes of lifestyle and perspectives, and communication. This creates a new cultural group that does not fall into their home or host culture, but rather share a culture with all other TCKs. [10] In 1993 she wrote:

In summarizing that which we had observed in our cross-cultural encounters, we began to use the term "third culture" as a generic term to cover the styles of life created, shared, and learned by persons who are in the process of relating their societies, or sections thereof, to each other. The term "Third Culture Kids" or TCKs was coined to refer to the children who accompany their parents into another society.

— Ruth Hill Useem

In 1984, author and researcher Norma McCaig used the term global nomad , in order to take into account that the child's situation was as a result of a parent or parents' career or life choice(s). [11]

Kay Branaman Eakin, the former education counselor for the United States Department of State, worked with American families returning to the United States after having lived abroad. She described a TCK as "someone who, as a child, has spent a significant period of time in one or more culture(s) other than his or her own, thus integrating elements of those cultures and their own birth culture, into a third culture." [12] [13]

David C. Pollock and Ruth Van Reken pioneered the TCK profile with the publishing of their book, Growing Up Among Worlds (first edition 1999), [14] which brought to light the emotional and psychological realities that come with the TCK journey, often resulting in feelings of rootlessness and grief but also an increased confidence and ability to interact with many cultures. Their definition of what it means to be a TCK is widely referenced: "[A] person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years outside the parents' culture. The TCK builds relationships to all of the cultures, while not having full ownership in any. Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCK's life experience, the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of the same background."[ This quote needs a citation ] Through interviews and personal writings, this seminal work explored the challenges and benefits that TCKs encounter. Later editions widened the net to discuss the experiences of CCKs (cross-cultural kids) who may be immigrants, international adoptees or the children of biracial or bicultural parents.

General characteristics

Third culture individuals are particularly adept at building relationships with other cultures while not possessing a cultural identity of their own. [3] They can also be referred to as cultural hybrids, cultural chameleons, and global nomads. [3] It has been discussed in the past that the characteristics that have been put forth by prominent researchers in the TCK field have only been discussed when referring to American children who have lived abroad. However, there has been further research done on TCKs that shows that the same characteristics described by Pollock and Useem in the most prominent TCK literature also apply to individuals from other nations who have also lived abroad for extended periods of time during their developmental years. [1] [6] [15] There are benefits and challenges to being a TCK according to various researchers on the subject. The term TCKs may be applied to all social classes and includes immigrant and refugee students (Dewaele 8c van Oudenhoven, 2009). [16]

Benefits

Challenges

Psychological effect

Identity

One of the challenges of being a third culture individual is developing a sense of belonging, commitment, and attachment to a culture. These factors play a strong role in one's self-esteem and identity, and are especially apparent as present or not present among TCKs. [24] There are psychological benefits to being a bi-culturally competent individual, meaning that adjustment to the host culture and repatriation do not pose a difficulty for the individual. Individuals who do not experience this same smooth transition into the new culture are referred to as "culturally rootless" and "cultural homelessness". Culturally homeless (CH) individuals often experience confusion over their identity and especially because the TCK is frequently abroad during the adolescent development years when identity is most solidified psychologically. [24]

When individuals who have spent a significant number of their developmental years in a host culture and have not been able to adapt, develop an identity, and do not feel as though they belong, they are considered "culturally homeless". Cultural homelessness has been found to have both advantages and disadvantages, at times to being associated with low self-esteem, perceiving less control over one's own life, and an unsatisfactory level of experience with belonging and attachment. [24]

Research

Though research initially largely focused on children in missionary families or children of diplomats, it has since expanded to other populations, including non-U.S. citizens. The researchers who pioneered the TCK research, such as Ruth Useem, were not expecting to find as many participants as they did. Useem and Cottrell, for example, were seeking at least 100 participants to respond to a survey that they believed to be "unconsciously long" but instead had 680 participants (ranging in age from 25 to 84 years) respond to the questionnaire. Instances like this one indicate to researchers the potential in exploring a subject matter that is still open to much research. [15]

Increased tolerance

From the research that has been conducted on TCKs, it has been found that subjects are generally more tolerant of different cultures and of people of different backgrounds than subjects from the same home country who are not TCKs. In addition, TCKs generally feel that they are better able to adapt to new cultures and understand how to behave appropriately in these new environments. [25] Researcher and teacher Wenda Sheard surveyed some of her multi-cultural students, most of whom were fluent in two or more languages, and found that many felt that they had an increased tolerance of other cultures. However, as one student explained, part of this tolerance was out of necessity for maintaining a healthy social life in one's new environment and culture. [25]

In a study by Dewaele and van Oudenhoven (2009), it was found that TCKs scored higher on the open-mindedness scale on the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). According to the study, "this dimension [of the test] evaluates for open and unprejudiced attitudes toward out-group members, as well as diverse cultural norms and values." [26]

Intellectual effect

Though the intellectual effect of being a TCK has not yet been widely explored, there has been some research in the area. One particular study by Lee and Bain (2007) that was found to have significant findings was conducted on young native Koreans who had recently moved to the United States and were attending school in America. The researchers were looking to see how these students would respond to explicit instruction aimed to work with their originality and fluency and that is specific to TCKs. This was measured through the level of creativity demonstrated in assigned tasks given to the students. TCKs were found to be able to demonstrate significantly higher levels of creativity and originality for problem solving than TCKs not given this same explicit instruction. This study has implications for the ways that TCKs can be instructed differently from the traditional curriculum to enhance their creativity and problem solving abilities because of their third culture experience. [27]

Intellectual effect is also possible through differences in choosing to continue studies in higher education after high school. In 2001, it was found by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics that 61.7 percent of 2001 high school graduates were enrolled in college. That same year, it was found that 95 percent of the TCK population were either enrolled or had some college education. Twenty-nine percent of this population had received an advanced degree, which is also higher than the percentage of the general population. [15]

Gender differences

Much of the literature and research surrounding TCKs has found that these individuals are more open to learning new languages, demonstrate more flexibility when interacting with a novel culture than their monoculture peers, and have a greater interest in continuing a global nomad lifestyle, which includes an interest in international careers. [28] It has been found that women are more inclined to seek out interpersonal relationships while men are more task-oriented in their relationships and choices. [29] Such findings were used in the hypothesis of a study conducted by Gerner & Perry (2000) that predicted that gender differences would also be found in the cultural acceptance and experiences of TCKs. [30]

Both non-U.S. citizen females and U.S. citizen females were found to have more positive ratings of cultural acceptance, acquisition or exposure to a new language, travel, and interest in going into an international career in the future and were less prone to stereotypes. [25]

Education and counseling

With the growing number of international business, military placements, and immigration, there has been a growing number of TCKs. Third culture kids are being educated in a culture that is not their own. Schools and teachers need to be aware of the culture differences these students face. Studies have found that educators and counselors should be culturally competent and possess the knowledge to properly educate these types of students. This would create an effective and optimal environment for their learning and adjusting abilities. Research has indicated that TCKs need special attention during their transition phase. The stress and grief students feel during transitional phases can distort their psycho-social development, which can affect their grades and school work. Therefore, TCKs need a comfortable and inviting school setting to offset the effect of their transition. The best way for counselors to work with TCKs is to have sound knowledge about the students and their unique characteristics. [16]

Emotions

Empirical research was done by Katholiki Georgiades, Michael H. Boyle, and Kelly A. Fife on emotional and behavior problems among adolescent students, specifically immigrant students. They examined the relationship between immigrants and racial/ethnic congruence in school. They hypothesized that school belonging is the connection between congruency and emotional problems. Although their study was unable to find enough evidence to support their hypothesis, they agree that school belonging influences emotional-behavioral problems. [31] According to other studies, TCKs are proven to have less emotional stability than those who grew up in more culturally and socially stable environments. [26]

Careers that lead to third culture kids

Military

TCKs who have parents or guardians affiliated with the military have varying levels of exposure to local culture. This is due to the possibility of living on-base or off-base. TCKs who live off-base or who are not closely affiliated with the military (such as contractors) will have higher exposure and cultural shaping, while those who spend the majority of their time on the base will have lower exposure and minimal cultural shaping. [32] Military children who are immersed in local culture from birth tend to show an extremely high level of cultural shaping, and upon relocation they are likely to experience culture shock and cling to said culture for years, if not for life. Relocation for these particular TCKs has shown to be particularly marring for them emotionally. [32] See also Military brat (U.S. subculture).

Non-military government

Some of these TCKs may grow up moving from country to country in the diplomatic corps (see Foreign Service brat) while others may live their lives near military bases. [33]

Religious

Missionary kids (MKs) typically spend the most time overseas, of any TCKs, in one country. 85% of MKs spend more than 10 years in foreign countries and 72% lived in only one foreign country. Of all TCKs, MKs generally have the most interaction with the local populace and the least interaction with people from their passport country. They are also the most likely of the TCKs to integrate themselves into the local culture. [33] 83% of missionary kids have at least one parent with an advanced degree. [34] Missionary kids struggle to adjust to the parents' culture; the majority of MKs identify mostly with the country in which their parents served. [35]

Business

Another career that can lead to TCKs is a career in business. Sixty-three percent of business TCKs have lived in foreign countries at least 10 years but are more likely than children in missionary families to live in multiple countries. Business TCKs have fairly high interaction with both their host nationals and people from their host country. [33]

Other

Not all TCK families have one of the four careers listed above. Other careers include working for an intergovernmental agency (for example, the Nuclear Energy Agency, the Commonwealth Secretariat, and the International Agency of the Francophonie), an international public or non-governmental organization (for example, an international school or serving as international staff of the United Nations or one of their agencies), and a local organization such as a hospital. Working in media or athletic industries (for example, Wally Szczerbiak) can also mean being moved abroad. [36] Like most of the other careers that send employees abroad, involvement with the host culture can vary greatly. [33]

Recent research into the 'other' category has identified a subgroup of TCKs now labelled EdKids. These are children who relocate to various countries with their parents who are educators in international schools. This creates a unique paradigm of a nuclear family whose family-work-school-social experiences are intertwined. [37]

Career decisions

Effect on the workforce

Third culture individuals, with their international experience, generally value the international aspect of their lives. In a survey given to TCKs in 2001, there was a strong interest among TCK participants to continue to travel as they move into adulthood and their future careers, and many continued to maintain their internationally acquired languages. It was also found in these surveys that approximately half of the participants continue to travel at least once a year and that just a little under 15 percent travel for business. [15] TCKs have also been found to report selecting to study majors while in college that could have the options of having international careers. Some of these fields of study include business, nursing, and teaching English as a foreign language. [38]

Below are tables showing some of the fields that TCK go into.

Type of work [39] MissionaryMilitaryGovernmentBusinessOther
Executive/admin17%40%35%10%24%
Semi/Professional61%34%38%47%53%
Support (secretarial/technical)17%27%15%16%13%
Sales5%6%7%5%4%
Other1%4%5%6%6%
Work setting [40] MissionaryMilitaryGovernmentBusinessOther
Business/financial22%32%27%20%17%
Education25%23%17%17%28%
Health/social services24%7%13%23%13%
Self-employed11%14%14%14%14%
Government3%5%5%7%8%
Military2%10%6%1%2%
Non-medical professional3%6%12%11%10%
Arts/media0%3%5%4%7%
Religious10%0%0%2%1%

Language and third culture individuals

A map of the world's major language family sub-groups. Languages world map actual.png
A map of the world's major language family sub-groups.

Most international TCKs are expected to speak English and some countries require their expatriate families to be proficient with the English language. [32] This is largely because most international schools use the English language as the norm. [32]

Families tend to seek out schools whose principal languages they share, and ideally one which mirrors their own educational system. Many countries have American schools, French schools, British schools, German schools and 'international schools' which often follow one of the three International Baccalaureate programs. These will be populated by expatriates' children and some children of the local upper middle class. They do this in an effort to maintain linguistic stability and to ensure that their children do not fall behind due to linguistic problems. Where their own language is not available, families will often choose English-speaking schools for their children. They do this because of the linguistic and cultural opportunities being immersed in English might provide their children when they are adults, and because their children are more likely to have prior exposure to English than to other international languages. This poses the potential for non-English speaking TCKs to have a significantly different experience from TCKs for whom English is a native language. [41] Research on TCKs from Japan, Denmark, Italy, Germany, the United States and Africa has shown that TCKs from different countries share more in common with other TCKs than they do with their own peer group from their passport country. [41]

A few sociologists studying TCKs, however, argue that the commonality found in international TCKs is not the result of true commonality, but rather the researcher's bias projecting expectations upon the studied subculture. They believe that some of the superficial attributes may mirror each other, but that TCKs from different countries are really different from one another. [41] The exteriors may be the same, but that the understanding of the world around them differs. [32]

Kikokushijo

In Japan, the use of the term third culture kids to refer to children returned from living overseas is not universally accepted; they are typically referred to both in Japanese and in English as kikokushijo , literally 'returnee children', a term which has different implications. Public awareness of kikokushijo is much more widespread in Japan than awareness of TCKs in the United States, and government reports as early as 1966 recognised the need for the school system to adapt to them. However, views of kikokushijo have not always been positive; in the 1970s, especially, they were characterised in media reports and even by their own parents as "educational orphans" in need of "rescue" to reduce their foreignness and successfully reintegrate them into Japanese society. [42] [43]

Statistics (U.S. TCKs)

Research has been done on American TCKs to identify various characteristics: [44] [45]

Cognitive and emotional development

Education and career

See also

Related Research Articles

Acculturation is a process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing culture of the society. Acculturation is a process in which an individual adopts, acquires and adjusts to a new cultural environment as a result of being placed into a new culture, or when another culture is brought to someone. Individuals of a differing culture try to incorporate themselves into the new more prevalent culture by participating in aspects of the more prevalent culture, such as their traditions, but still hold onto their original cultural values and traditions. The effects of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both the devotee of the prevailing culture and those who are assimilating into the culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture shock</span> Experience one may have when moving to a cultural environment which is different from ones own

Culture shock is an experience a person may have when one moves to a cultural environment which is different from one's own; it is also the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move between social environments, or simply transition to another type of life. One of the most common causes of culture shock involves individuals in a foreign environment. Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and adaptation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural identity</span> Identity or feeling of belonging to a group

Cultural identity is a part of a person's identity, or their self-conception and self-perception, and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality, gender, or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture. In this way, cultural identity is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally identical group of members sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing. Cultural identity is an unfixed process that is continually evolving within the discourses of social, cultural, and historical experiences. Some people undergo more cultural identity changes as opposed to others, those who change less often have a clear cultural identity. This means that they have a dynamic yet stable integration of their culture.

Intercultural communication is a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense, it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate, and perceive the world around them. Intercultural communication focuses on the recognition and respect of those with cultural differences. The goal is mutual adaptation between two or more distinct cultures which leads to biculturalism/multiculturalism rather than complete assimilation. It promotes the development of cultural sensitivity and allows for empathic understanding across different cultures.

Missionary’s kids are the children of missionary parents, and thus born or raised abroad. They form a subset of third culture kids (TCKs). The term is more specifically applied when these children return to their "home" or passport country, and often experience various difficulties identifying with fellow citizens and integrating "back" into their "home" culture. The resulting feeling is described as "reverse culture shock".

Cross-cultural may refer to

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military brat (U.S. subculture)</span> Child of a member of the U.S. armed forces

In the United States, a military brat is the child of a parent(s), adopted parent(s), or legal guardian(s) serving full-time in the United States Armed Forces, whether current or former. The term military brat can also refer to the subculture and lifestyle of such families.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International school</span> School, often with foreign students or with an international curriculum

International schools are private schools that promote education in an international environment or framework. Although there is no uniform definition or criteria, international schools are usually characterised by a multinational student body and staff, multilingual instruction, curricula oriented towards global perspectives and subjects, and the promotion of concepts such as world citizenship, pluralism, and intercultural understanding; most are private schools. Many international schools adopt a curriculum from programmes and organisations such as the International Baccalaureate, Edexcel, Cambridge International Education, FOBISIA, International Primary Curriculum, or Advanced Placement. International schools often follow a curriculum different from the host country, catering mainly to foreign students, such as members of expatriate communities, international businesses or organisations, diplomatic missions, or missionary programmes. Admission is sometimes open to local students to provide qualifications for employment or higher education in a foreign country, offer high-level language instruction, and/or foster cultural and global awareness.

Cultural competence, also known as intercultural competence, is a range of cognitive, affective, behavioural, and linguistic skills that lead to effective and appropriate communication with people of other cultures. Intercultural or cross-cultural education are terms used for the training to achieve cultural competence.

<i>Unrooted Childhoods</i>

Unrooted Childhoods: Memoirs of Growing up Global is a book of memoirs of several people who grew up in multiple countries, or moving frequently between distant regions within the same country, also known as third culture kids. It is edited by Faith Eidse and Nina Sichel. It documents the life, including the unique challenges, feelings of difference/outsiderism, and gifts, of growing up in multiple nations, cultures, and language-regions. It was first published in 2004.

Mary Edwards Wertsch is an author, journalist, independent publisher, and expert on the subculture of American military brats. She wrote the book Military Brats: Legacies of Childhood Inside the Fortress. This book is considered the seminal piece of literature dealing with the effects of growing up as a military brat. In writing the book, Wertsch, a reporter by training, interviewed over 80 military brats and documented the patterns she found in the ways military children are raised, and the ways they continue to be affected, both positively and negatively, well into adulthood.

Ruth Hill Useem was an American sociologist and anthropologist who introduced the concept of Third Culture Kid (TCK) to describe children who spent part of their developmental years in a foreign culture due to their parents' working abroad. Her work was the first to identify common themes among various TCKs that may affect them throughout their lives. After her retirement in 1985, Useem focused her research on Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs).

Kikokushijo and kaigaishijo are Japanese-language terms referring to the children of Japanese expatriates who take part of their education outside Japan. The former term is used to refer to children who have returned to Japan, while the latter refers to such children while they are still overseas. They are referred to in English variously as "sojourn children" or "returnees". The term "third culture kids" is used by other countries.

The Bennett scale, also called the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), was developed by Milton Bennett. The framework describes the different ways in which people can react to cultural differences. Bennett's initial idea was for trainers to utilize the model to evaluate trainees' intercultural awareness and help them improve intercultural sensitivity, also sometimes referred to as cultural sensitivity, which is the ability of accepting and adapting to a brand new and different culture.

A military brat is a child of serving or retired military personnel. Military brats are associated with a unique subculture and cultural identity. A military brat's childhood or adolescent life may be immersed in military culture to the point where the mainstream culture of their home country may seem foreign or peripheral. In many countries where there are military brat subcultures, the child's family moves great distances from one non-combat assignment to another for much of their youth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural sensitivity</span> Knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of other cultures

Cultural sensitivity, also referred to as cross-cultural sensitivity or cultural awareness, is the knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of other cultures and others' cultural identities. It is related to cultural competence, and is sometimes regarded as the precursor to the achievement of cultural competence, but is a more commonly used term. On the individual level, cultural sensitivity is a state of mind regarding interactions with those different from oneself. Cultural sensitivity enables travelers, workers, and others to successfully navigate interactions with a culture other than their own.

The expression cultural jet lag was first coined by Marc Perraud during his research into cross-cultural psychology. He describes the expression as the phenomenon of partial socialization in adults born from bi-cultural/national unions and whose childhood was characterized by nomadic displacement during key personality developmental stages. Jet symbolically designates international travel as the cause, cultural lag the resulting disconnect observed in these patients.

David C. Pollock was an American sociologist, author, and speaker known for his expertise on Third Culture Kids (TCKs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child Identity</span>

Child Identity is not only a psychological structure, but also a complex subject of contemporary humanitarian science. Identity formation is a complex process that is never completed. When we research the problems of identity we want to answer questions "Who we are?", "Do we choose our identity?", "Is identity given to us or do we create our own?", etc. In a world of change, children are faced with many questions and struggles as they sort out their multiple identities. Children begin to ask identity questions at an early age. "Who am I?" "Who is my family?" "Where do I belong?" "Why does my family celebrate some holidays and not others?". These are all standard questions children ask to determine how they fit into their world.

Intercultural intelligence, or ICI, is a term that is used for the capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings and consists of different dimensions which are correlated to effectiveness in global environment. Intercultural intelligence differs from cultural intelligence in that it is based from the belief in interculturalism while CQ is based from the belief in multiculturalism. The term was first used in 2006 in response to the qualities observed in international executives that enabled them to succeed globally.

References

Citations

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  4. 1 2 Melles, E.A.; Schwartz, J. (2013). "Does the third culture kid experience predict levels of prejudice?". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 37 (2): 260–267. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2012.08.001.
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  12. ↑ Eakin, K.B. (1998). According to my passport, I'm coming home. U.S. Department of State.
  13. ↑ Eakin, K.B. Our consultants: Kay Branaman Eakin. Bennett Schoolplacment Worldwide.
  14. ↑ "Third Culture Kids: The Experience of Growing up Among Worlds: The original, classic book on TCKS by David C. Pollock - Books".
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  24. 1 2 3 Hoersting, Raquel C.; Jenkins, Sharon Rae (January 2011). "No place to call home: Cultural homelessness, self-esteem and cross-cultural identities". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 35 (1): 17–30. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.005.
  25. 1 2 3 Sheard, W (2008). "Lessons from our kissing cousins: Third culture kids and gifted children". Roeper Review: A Journal on Gifted Education. 30 (1): 31–38. doi:10.1080/02783190701836437. S2CID   143817041.
  26. 1 2 Dewaele, Jean-Marc; van Oudenhoven, Jan Pieter (November 2009). "The effect of multilingualism/multiculturalism on personality: no gain without pain for Third Culture Kids?" (PDF). International Journal of Multilingualism. 6 (4): 443–459. doi:10.1080/14790710903039906.
  27. ↑ Lee, Y.J.; Bain, S.K.; McCallum, R.S. (2007). "Improving creative problem-solving in a sample of third culture kids". School Psychology International. 28 (4): 449–463. doi:10.1177/0143034307084135. S2CID   146656992.
  28. ↑ Gerner, M (1993). "A profile of an American international school". Global Nomad Quarterly. 2 (1): 3.
  29. ↑ Cann, A.; Siegfried, W. D. (1990). "Gender stereotypes and dimensions of effective leader behavior". Sex Roles. 23 (7–8): 413–419. doi:10.1007/bf00289229. S2CID   144909889.
  30. ↑ Gerner, M.E.; Perry, F. (2000). "Gender differences in cultural acceptance and career orientation among internationally mobile and non-internationally mobile adolescents". School Psychology Review. 29: 2.
  31. ↑ Georgiades, Katholiki; Boyle, Michael H.; Fife, Kelly A. (September 2013). "Emotional and Behavioral Problems Among Adolescent Students: The Role of Immigrant, Racial/Ethnic Congruence and Belongingness in Schools". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 42 (9): 1473–1492. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9868-2. PMID   23192451.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 Pearce 2002, p. [ page needed ].
  33. 1 2 3 4 Cottrell 2002, p. 231.
  34. ↑ Cottrell 2002, p. 230.
  35. ↑ Bikos, L.H.; Kocheleva, J.; King, D.; Chang, G.C.; McKenzie, A.; Roenicke, C.; Eckard, K. (2009). "A consensual qualitative investigation into the repatriation experiences of young adult, missionary kids". Mental Health, Religion & Culture. 12. 12 (7): 735–754. doi:10.1080/13674670903032637. S2CID   144358318.
  36. ↑ Jordan (2002) p 227.[ full citation needed ]
  37. ↑ Zilber, E. (2009). Third Culture Kids: Children of International School Educators. London: John Catt Ltd.
  38. ↑ Cottrell 2002, p. [ page needed ].
  39. ↑ Cottrell 2002, p. 237.
  40. ↑ Cottrell 2002, p. 238.
  41. 1 2 3 Hylmö, Annika (2002). Other Expatriate Adolescents: A Postmodern Approach to Understanding Expatriate Adolescents Among Non-U.S. Children, in 'Military Brats and Other Global Nomads', M. Ender, ed. Portland: Greenwood. pp. 196, 201. ISBN   978-0275972660.
  42. ↑ Kano Podolsky, Momo (31 January 2004). "Cross-cultural upbringing: A comparison of the 'Third Culture Kids' framework and 'Kaigai/Kikoku-shijo' studies". 京都女子大学現代社会研究[Kyoto Women's University Contemporary Social Studies]. 6: 67–78. hdl: 11173/340 .
  43. ↑ Cottrell, Ann Baker (2011). "Explaining Differences: TCKs and Other CCKs, American and Japanese TCKs". In Bell-Villada, Gene; Sichel, Nina (eds.). Writing Out of Limbo: International Childhoods, Global Nomads and Third Culture Kids. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN   9781443833608.
  44. ↑ McCaig NM (1994). Growing up with a world view – nomad children develop multicultural skills. Foreign Service Journal, pp. 32–41.
  45. ↑ Useem RH (2001). Third Culture Kids: Focus of Major Study Archived 2004-11-02 at the Wayback Machine . International Schools Services.
  46. 1 2 Cottrell, AB; Useem, RH (1993). "TCKs Experience Prolonged Adolescence". International Schools Services. 8: 1.
  47. ↑ Plamondon, Laila (2008). Third Culture Kids: Factors that Predict Psychological Health after Repatriation. Honors Thesis, Smith College.
  48. 1 2 3 Cottrell, AB; Useem, RH (1994). "ATCKs maintain global dimensions throughout their lives". International Schools Services. 8: 4.
  49. ↑ Ender, Morten, "Growing up in the Military" in Strangers at Home: Essays on the effects of living overseas and Coming 'home' to a strange land. Edited Carolyn Smith, Alethia Publications: New York. 1996. pp 88–90
  50. ↑ Sheppard, Caroline H.; William Steele (2003). "Moving Can Become Traumatic". Trauma and Loss: Research and Interventions. Nat'l Inst for Trauma and Loss in Children. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  51. ↑ Oesterreich, Lesia (April 2004). "Understanding children: moving to a new home" (PDF). Iowa State University. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  52. ↑ Cottrell, AB; Useem, RH (1993). "TCKs Four Times More Likely to Earn Bachelor's Degrees". International Schools Services. 7: 5.

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