African leopard

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African leopard
Namibie Etosha Leopard 01edit.jpg
A leopard in Etosha National Park, Namibia
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. pardus
Subspecies:
P. p. pardus [1]
Trinomial name
Panthera pardus pardus [1]
Synonyms
List
    • P. p. panthera(Schreber, 1777)
    • P. p. leopardus(Schreber, 1777)
    • P. p. melanotica(Günther, 1885)
    • P. p. suahelicus(Neumann, 1900)
    • P. p. nanopardus(Thomas, 1904)
    • P. p. ruwenzorii(Camerano, 1906)
    • P. p. chui(Heller, 1913)
    • P. p. reichenowi(Cabrera, 1918)
    • P. p. antinorii(de Beaux, 1923)
    • P. p. ituriensis(Allen, 1924)
    • P. p. adusta Pocock, 1927
    • P. p. shortridgei(Pocock, 1932)
    • P. p. brockmani(Pocock, 1932)
    • P. p. puella (Pocock, 1932)
    • P. p. adersi Pocock, 1932 [2]

The African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) is the nominate subspecies of the leopard, native to many countries in Africa. It is widely distributed in most of sub-Saharan Africa, but the historical range has been fragmented in the course of habitat conversion. [3] Leopards have also been recorded in North Africa as well. [4] [5]

Contents

Taxonomy

A taxidermied specimen at the Scientific Institute of Rabat, Morocco. The Barbary leopard of Northwest Africa used to be classified under Panthera pardus panthera, before being subsumed to P. p. pardus. Leopard - Institut scientifique de Rabat - Morocco.jpg
A taxidermied specimen at the Scientific Institute of Rabat, Morocco. The Barbary leopard of Northwest Africa used to be classified under Panthera pardus panthera, before being subsumed to P. p. pardus.

Felis pardus was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. His description was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner. He assumed that the leopard occurred in India. [7] In the 18th and 19th centuries, several naturalists described various leopard skins and skulls from Africa, including: [8]

Results of genetic analyses indicate that all African leopard populations are generally closely related and represent only one subspecies, namely P. p. pardus. [5] [6] However, results of an analysis of molecular variance and the pairwise fixation index of African leopard museum specimens shows differences in the ND-5 locus spanning five major haplogroups, namely in Central–Southern Africa, Southern Africa, West Africa, coastal West–Central Africa, and Central–East Africa. In some cases, fixation indices showed higher diversity than for the Arabian leopard and Panthera pardus tulliana in Asia. [13]

Characteristics

A dark-coloured leopard skin from Central Africa (Kongo) Panthera pardus (Leopard (Kongo)).jpg
A dark-coloured leopard skin from Central Africa (Kongo)
A leopard in the Serengeti Leopard (Panthera pardus).jpg
A leopard in the Serengeti

The African leopard exhibits great variation in coat color, depending on location and habitat. Coat colour varies from pale yellow to deep gold or tawny, and sometimes black, and is patterned with black rosettes while the head, lower limbs and belly are spotted with solid black. Male leopards are larger, averaging 58 kg (128 lb) with 90 kg (200 lb) being the maximum weight attained by a male. Females weigh about 37.5 kg (83 lb) on average. [14]

The African leopard is sexually dimorphic; males are larger and heavier than females. [15] Between 1996 and 2000, 11 adult leopards were radio-collared on Namibian farmlands. Males weighed 37.5 to 52.3 kg (83 to 115 lb) only, and females 24 to 33.5 kg (53 to 74 lb). [16] The heaviest known leopard weighed about 96 kg (212 lb), and was recorded in South West Africa. [17]

According to Alfred Edward Pease, black leopards in North Africa were similar in size to lions. An Algerian leopard killed in 1913 was reported to have measured approximately 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m), before being skinned. [18]

Leopards inhabiting the mountains of the Cape Provinces appear smaller and less heavy than leopards further north. [19] Leopards in Somalia and Ethiopia are also said to be smaller. [20]

The skull of a West African leopard specimen measured 11.25 in (286 mm) in basal length, and 7.125 in (181.0 mm) in breadth, and weighed 1 lb 12 oz (0.79 kg). To compare, that of an Indian leopard measured 11.2 in (280 mm) in basal length, and 7.9 in (20 cm) in breadth, and weighed 2 lb 4 oz (1.0 kg). [21]

Distribution and habitat

A leopard on the border between Guinea and Senegal Leopard Senegal.jpg
A leopard on the border between Guinea and Senegal

The African leopards inhabited a wide range of habitats within Africa, from mountainous forests to grasslands and savannahs, excluding only extremely sandy desert. It is most at risk in areas of semi-desert, where scarce resources often result in conflict with nomadic farmers and their livestock. [22] [23]

It used to occur in most of sub-Saharan Africa, occupying both rainforest and arid desert habitats. It lived in all habitats with annual rainfall above 50 mm (2.0 in), and can penetrate areas with less than this amount of rainfall along river courses. It ranges up to 5,700 m (18,700 ft), has been sighted on high slopes of the Ruwenzori and Virunga volcanoes, and observed when drinking thermal water 37 °C (99 °F) in the Virunga National Park. [23]

It appears to be successful at adapting to altered natural habitat and settled environments in the absence of intense persecution. It has often been recorded close to major cities. But already in the 1980s, it has become rare throughout much of West Africa. [24] Now, it remains patchily distributed within historical limits. [3] During surveys in 2013, it was recorded in Gbarpolu County and Bong County in the Upper Guinean forests of Liberia. [25]

Leopards are rare in North Africa. A relict population persists in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, in forest and mountain steppe in elevations of 300 to 2,500 m (980 to 8,200 ft), where the climate is temperate to cold. [26] [27]

In 2014, a leopard was killed in the Elba Protected Area in southeastern Egypt. This was the first sighting of a leopard in the country since the 1950s. [28]

In 2016, a leopard was recorded for the first time in a semi-arid area of Yechilay in northern Ethiopia. [29]

Behavior and ecology

In Kruger National Park, male leopards and female leopards with cubs were more active at night than solitary females. The highest rates of daytime activity were recorded for leopards using thorn thickets during the wet season, when impala also used them. [30] Leopards are generally most active between sunset and sunrise, and kill more prey at this time. [31]

Diet and hunting

A leopard with an impala kill in Kruger National Park Leopardo (Panthera pardus) devorando un antilope, parque nacional Kruger, Sudafrica, 2018-07-26, DD 06.jpg
A leopard with an impala kill in Kruger National Park

The leopard has an exceptional ability to adapt to changes in prey availability, and has a very broad diet. It takes small prey where large ungulates are less common. The known prey of leopards ranges from dung beetles to adult elands, which can reach 900 kg (2,000 lb). [23] In sub-Saharan Africa, at least 92 prey species have been documented in leopard scat, including rodents, birds, small and large antelopes, hyraxes, hares, and arthropods. Leopards generally focus their hunting activity on locally abundant medium-sized ungulates in the 20 to 80 kg (44 to 176 lb) range, while opportunistically taking other prey. Average intervals between ungulate kills range from seven [30] to 12–13 days. [31] Leopards often hide large kills in trees, a behavior for which great strength is required. There have been several observations of leopards hoisting carcasses of young giraffes, estimated to weigh up to 125 kg (276 lb), i.e. 2–3 times the weight of the leopard, up to 5.7 m (19 ft) into trees. [31]

A male leopard with a warthog kill resting in an acacia tree in Naboisho Conservancy, Kenya Leopard with kill in tree.jpg
A male leopard with a warthog kill resting in an acacia tree in Naboisho Conservancy, Kenya

In Serengeti National Park, leopards were radio-collared for the first time in the early 1970s. Their hunting at night was difficult to watch; the best time for observing them was after dawn. Of their 64 daytime hunts, only three were successful. In this woodland area, they preyed mostly on impalas, both adult and young, and caught some Thomson's gazelles in the dry season. Occasionally, they successfully hunted warthogs, dik-diks, reedbucks, duikers, steenboks, blue wildebeest and topi calves, jackals, Cape hares, guineafowl and starlings. They were less successful in hunting plains zebras, Coke's hartebeests, giraffes, mongooses, genets, hyraxes and small birds. Scavenging from the carcasses of large animals made up a small proportion of their food. [32] In the tropical rainforests of Central Africa, their diet consists of duikers and primates. Some individual leopards have shown a strong preference for pangolins and porcupines. [33]

In North Africa, the leopard preys on Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus). [34] [35] Analysis of leopard scat in Taï National Park revealed that primates are primary leopard prey during the day. [36] In Gabon's Lope National Park, the most important prey species was found to be the red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus), African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) and greater cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus), comprised 13% each of the consumed biomass. [37]

In the Central African Republic's Dzanga-Sangha Complex of Protected Areas, a leopard reportedly attacked and pursued a large western lowland gorilla, but did not catch it. Gorilla parts found in leopard scat indicates that the leopard either scavenged on gorilla remains or killed it. [38] African leopards were observed preying on adult eastern gorillas in the Kisoro area near Uganda's borders with Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. [39]

Threats

An African leopard killed by Carl Akeley (right) barehanded Picture of Carl Akeley.jpg
An African leopard killed by Carl Akeley (right) barehanded

Throughout Africa, the major threats to leopards are habitat conversion and intense persecution, [40] especially in retribution for real and perceived livestock loss. [41] The Upper Guinean forests in Liberia are considered a biodiversity hotspot, but have already been fragmented into two blocks. Large tracts are affected by commercial logging and mining activities, and are converted for agricultural use including large-scale oil palm plantations in concessions obtained by a foreign company. [25]

The impact of trophy hunting on populations is unclear, but may have impacts at the demographic and population level, especially when females are shot. In Tanzania, only males are allowed to be hunted, but females comprised 28.6% of 77 trophies shot between 1995 and 1998. [42] Removing an excessively high number of males may produce a cascade of deleterious effects on the population. Although male leopards provide no parental care to cubs, the presence of the sire allows females to raise cubs with a reduced risk of infanticide by other males. There are few reliable observations of infanticide in leopards, but new males entering the population are likely to kill existing cubs. [43]

Analysis of leopard scats and camera trapping surveys in contiguous forest landscapes in the Congo Basin revealed a high dietary niche overlap and an exploitative competition between leopards and bushmeat hunters. With increasing proximity to settlements and concomitant human hunting pressure, leopards exploit smaller prey and occur at considerably reduced population densities. In the presence of intensive bushmeat hunting surrounding human settlements, leopards appear entirely absent. [44] Transhumant pastoralists from the border area between Sudan and the Central African Republic take their livestock to the Chinko area. They are accompanied by armed merchants who engage in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok. Surveys in the area revealed that the leopard population decreased from 97 individuals in 2012 to 50 individuals in 2017. Rangers confiscated large amounts of poison in the camps of livestock herders, who admitted that they use it for poisoning predators. [45]

Conservation

A male leopard resting in an acacia tree after a kill in Naboisho Conservancy, Kenya, near Maasai Mara National Reserve 1leopard.jpg
A male leopard resting in an acacia tree after a kill in Naboisho Conservancy, Kenya, near Maasai Mara National Reserve

The leopard is listed in CITES Appendix I. Hunting is banned in Zambia and Botswana, and was suspended in South Africa for 2016. [3]

Leopard populations are present in several protected areas, including:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jaguar</span> Large cat native to the Americas

The jaguar is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus Panthera native to the Americas. With a body length of up to 1.85 m and a weight of up to 158 kg (348 lb), it is the biggest cat species in the Americas and the third largest in the world. Its distinctively marked coat features pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition to rosettes on the sides, although a melanistic black coat appears in some individuals. The jaguar's powerful bite allows it to pierce the carapaces of turtles and tortoises, and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tiger</span> Largest species of the cat family

The tiger is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable for its black stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates, such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent, leaving their mother's home range to establish their own.

A black panther is the melanistic colour variant of the leopard and the jaguar. Black panthers of both species have excess black pigments, but their typical rosettes are also present. They have been documented mostly in tropical forests, with black leopards in Africa and Asia, and black jaguars in South America. Melanism is caused by a recessive allele in the leopard, and by a dominant allele in the jaguar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leopard</span> Large spotted cat native to Africa and Asia

The leopard is one of the five extant species in the genus Panthera. It has a pale yellowish to dark golden fur with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its body is slender and muscular reaching a length of 92–183 cm (36–72 in) with a 66–102 cm (26–40 in) long tail and a shoulder height of 60–70 cm (24–28 in). Males typically weigh 30.9–72 kg (68–159 lb), and females 20.5–43 kg (45–95 lb).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clouded leopard</span> Species of wild cat

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The term "big cat" is typically used to refer to any of the five living members of the genus Panthera, namely the tiger, lion, jaguar, leopard, and snow leopard, as well as the non-pantherine cheetah and cougar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bengal tiger</span> Tiger population on the Indian subcontinent

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian leopard</span> Leopard subspecies

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zanzibar leopard</span> Leopard population in Zanzibar

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunda clouded leopard</span> Species of carnivore

The Sunda clouded leopard is a medium-sized wild cat native to Borneo and Sumatra. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2015, as the total effective population probably consists of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, with a decreasing population trend. On both Sunda Islands, it is threatened by deforestation. It was classified as a separate species, distinct from the clouded leopard in mainland Southeast Asia based on a study in 2006. Its fur is darker with a smaller cloud pattern.

<i>Panthera pardus tulliana</i> Leopard subspecies

Panthera pardus tulliana, also called Anatolian leopard, Persian leopard and Asia Minor leopard, is a leopard subspecies that was first described in 1856 based on a zoological specimen found in western Anatolia. It is native to the Iranian Plateau and the surrounding region from eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus to the Hindu Kush, where it inhabits foremost subalpine meadows, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and rugged ravines at elevations of 600 to 3,800 m. It preys mostly on hoofed animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snow leopard</span> Species of large felid

The snow leopard, occasionally called ounce, is a species of large cat in the genus Panthera of the family Felidae. The species is native to the mountain ranges of Central and South Asia. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List because the global population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and is expected to decline about 10% by 2040. It is mainly threatened by poaching and habitat destruction following infrastructural developments. It inhabits alpine and subalpine zones at elevations of 3,000–4,500 m (9,800–14,800 ft), ranging from eastern Afghanistan, the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to southern Siberia, Mongolia and western China. In the northern part of its range, it also lives at lower elevations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amur leopard</span> Leopard subspecies in Far East Asia

The Amur leopard is a leopard subspecies native to the Primorye region of southeastern Russia and northern China. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as in 2007, only 19–26 wild leopards were estimated to survive in southeastern Russia and northeastern China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indochinese leopard</span> Leopard subspecies

The Indochinese leopard is a leopard subspecies native to mainland Southeast Asia and southern China. In Indochina, leopards are rare outside protected areas and threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation as well as poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. In 2016, the population was previously thought to comprise 973–2,503 mature individuals, with only 409–1,051 breeding adults. The historical range had decreased by more than 90%. However, as of 2019, it is estimated that there are 77-766 mature Indochinese leopards and that their numbers are decreasing.

References

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