Battle of Badon

Last updated

Battle of Mount Badon
Part of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain
Arthur Leading the Charge at Mount Badon.png
Arthur leading the cavalry charge at Mount Badon in an 1898 illustration for Idylls of the King
DateUnknown, c. 500 AD
Location
Unknown, various locations proposed
Result Brittonic victory
Belligerents
Romano-Britons
Celtic Britons 		Anglo-Saxons
Commanders and leaders
Unknown (possibly Ambrosius Aurelianus and/or Arthur) Unknown (possibly Ælle of Sussex or Cerdic of Wessex)

The Battle of Badon, also known as the Battle of Mons Badonicus, [lower-alpha 1] was purportedly fought between Britons and Anglo-Saxons in Post-Roman Britain during the late 5th or early 6th century. [1] It was credited as a major victory for the Britons, stopping the westward encroachment of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms for a period.

Contents

The earliest known references to the battle, by the British cleric Gildas, date to the 6th century. It is chiefly known today for the supposed involvement of the man who would later be remembered as the legendary King Arthur; although it is not agreed that Arthur was a historical person, his name first appears in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum , where he is mentioned as having participated in the battle alongside the Brittonic kings as a war commander, though is not described as a king himself. Because of the limited number of sources, there is no certainty about the date, location, or details of the fighting. [2] [3]

Almost all scholars agree that this battle did happen. However, Gildas does not call it an actual battle, but rather a siege. It is unclear if the Saxons were besieging the Britons, or Britons were besieging the Saxons. [4]

Historical accounts

Gildas

The earliest mention of the Battle of Badon appears in Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain), written in the early to mid-6th century. In it, the Anglo-Saxons are said to have "dipped [their] red and savage tongue in the western ocean" before Ambrosius Aurelianus organized a British resistance with the survivors of the initial Saxon onslaught. Gildas describes the period that followed Ambrosius' initial success:

From that time, the citizens were sometimes victorious, sometimes the enemy, in order that the Lord, according to His wont, might try in this nation the Israel of today, whether it loves Him or not. This continued up to the year of the siege of Badon Hill (obsessionis Badonici montis), and of almost the last great slaughter inflicted upon the rascally crew. And this commences, a fact I know, as the forty-fourth year, with one month now elapsed; it is also the year of my birth. [5]

De Excidio Britanniae describes the battle as such an "unexpected recovery of the [island]" that it caused kings, nobles, priests, and commoners to "live orderly according to their several vocations." Afterwards, the long peace degenerated into civil wars and the iniquity of Maelgwn Gwynedd.

That Arthur had gone unmentioned by Gildas, ostensibly the source closest to his own time, was noticed at least as early as a 12th-century hagiography of Gildas which claims that Gildas had praised Arthur extensively but then excised him completely after Arthur killed the saint's brother, Hueil mab Caw. Modern writers have suggested the details of the battle may have been so well known that Gildas expected his audience to be familiar with them. [6]

Bede

The battle is next mentioned in an 8th-century text of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum), [7] which describes the "siege of Mount Badon, when they made no small slaughter of those invaders," as occurring 44 years after the first Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. [8] [9] Since Bede places that arrival just before, during or just after the joint reign in Rome of Marcian and Valentinian III in AD 449–456, [lower-alpha 2] he must have considered Badon to have taken place between 493 and 500. Bede then puts off discussion of the battle – "But more of this hereafter" – only to seemingly never return to it.

Bede does later include an extended account of Saint Germanus of Auxerre's victory over the Saxons and Picts in a mountain valley (traditionally placed at Mold in Flintshire in northeast Wales), which he credits with curbing the threat of invasion for a generation. [11] However, as the victory is described as having been accomplished bloodlessly, it was presumably a different occasion from Badon. Accepted at face value, Saint Germanus' involvement would also place the battle around AD 430, although Bede's chronology shows no knowledge of this.

Nennius and the Welsh Annals

The earliest surviving text specifically mentioning Arthur in connection with the battle is the early 9th-century Historia Brittonum (The History of the Britons), [12] attributed to the Welsh monk Nennius, in which the soldier (Latin mīles) Arthur is identified as the leader of the victorious British force at Badon:

The twelfth battle was on Mount Badon in which there fell in one day 960 men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself. [13] [14]

The Battle of Badon is next mentioned in the Annales Cambriae (Annals of Wales), [15] assumed to have been written during the mid- to late-10th century. The entry states:

The Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ for three days and three nights upon his shoulders [or shield [16] ] and the Britons were the victors. [17] [18]

Geoffrey of Monmouth

Geoffrey of Monmouth's c. 1136 Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain) was massively popular and survives in many copies from soon after its composition. [19] Going into (and fabricating) much greater detail, Geoffrey closely identifies Badon with Bath, including having Merlin foretell that Badon's baths would lose their hot water and turn poisonous. [20] He also mixes in aspects of other accounts: the battle begins as a Saxon siege and then becomes a normal engagement once Arthur's men arrive; Arthur bears the image of the Virgin both on his shield and shoulder. Arthur charges and kills 470, ten more than the number of Britons ambushed by Hengist near Salisbury.

Elements of the Welsh legends are added: in addition to the shield Pridwen , Arthur gains his sword, Caliburnus (Excalibur), and his spear, Ron . Geoffrey also makes the defence of the city from the Saxon sneak attack a holy cause, having Dubricius offer absolution of all sins for those who fall in battle. [21]

Scholarship

There is considerable scholarly debate as to the exact date and location of the battle, though most agree that it took place in southern England sometime around the turn of the sixth century.

Date

Dates proposed by scholars for the battle include 493, 501 and 516. [22] Daniel McCarthy and Dáibhí Ó Cróinín have posited that Gildas' 44 years and one month is not a reference to the simple chronology but a position within the 84-year Easter cycle used for computus at the time by the Britons and the Irish church. The tables in question begin in January 438, which would place their revised date of the battle in February 482. [23]

Andrew Breeze, in a 2020 book, argues that the Battle of Badon or "Braydon, Wiltshire" took place in 493, deducing that Gildas was writing De Excidio in 536, in the middle of the extreme weather events of 535–536, because he cited a "certain thick mist and black night" which "sits upon the whole island" of Britain, but not the subsequent famine in the year 537. Breeze concluded that Badon was fought "(...) in southern Britain, was fought in 493 and had nothing to do with Arthur." [24]

Location

Though academics have never reached any consensus, Mount Badon’s location has traditionally been sited in the hills around Bath, most notably at Bathampton Down. Tim and Annette Burkitt have proposed Caer Badden (Latin : Aquae Sulis; now Bath, Somerset), some 20 miles northeast of the Roman mines at Charterhouse, on the basis of the Welsh Annals as well as archaeological and toponymic evidence. [25] [26]

Liddington Castle site. The ramparts of the Iron Age hillfort can be seen at the highest point of the skyline. Liddington Castle, Liddington, Swindon - geograph.org.uk - 624639.jpg
Liddington Castle site. The ramparts of the Iron Age hillfort can be seen at the highest point of the skyline.

Susan Hirst, Geoffrey Ashe and Michael Wood argue for the site of Liddington Castle on the hill above Badbury (Old English: Baddan byrig) in Wiltshire. This site commands The Ridgeway, which connects the River Thames with the River Avon and River Severn beyond. [27] [28] [29]

The similarly named Badbury Rings in Dorset have also been argued to be the location of the battle. [30] David Cooper agrees that this is the most likely site and has provided the most comprehensive analysis of the battle available to date. [31]

Andrew Breeze has argued that Badon must be etymologically Brittonic rather than English (thus eliminating Bath from consideration as its name is entirely Germanic), and that the toponym as given by Gildas (Badonici Montis) is a misprint of Bradonici Montis, based on known Celtic placenames in Wales and Cornwall. Breeze posits Ringsbury Camp near Braydon in Wiltshire as the site of the battle. [32]

Possible Saxon commander

Some authors have speculated that Ælle of Sussex may have led the Saxon forces at this battle. [33] Others reject the idea out of hand. [34] In book 9 of his work Historia regum Britanniae , Geoffrey of Monmouth mentions certain Cheldric [35] as Saxon war leader that fought at Bath during the same period, so other scholars suggest that (due to similarities of names) Cerdic of Wessex was the Saxon leader during the battle.

Second Badon

The A Text of the Annales Cambriae [15] includes the entry: "The first celebration of Easter among the Saxons. The second battle of Badon. Morgan dies." [18] [36] The date for this action is given by Phillimore as AD 665, [15] but the Saxons' first Easter is placed by the B Text in its entry 634 years after the birth of Christ and "the second Badon" is not mentioned. [37]

Romance depiction

The 13th-century Vulgate Cycle, a French prose romance retelling of the Arthurian legend, replaced the Battle of Badon with the Battle of Clarence (spelling variants: Clarance, Clarans, Clarenche, Clarens). In the first round of fighting, a coalition of British kings is defeated by the Saxons (or the Saracens in some subsequent versions, including that by Thomas Malory). In the second phase, Arthur joins the battle and enemy forces are destroyed, driving invaders into the sea.

Local lore

Apart from the professional scholarship, various communities throughout Wales and England have their own traditions maintaining that their area was the site of the battle. These include (besides Badbury Rings and Bathampton Down), [38] the mountain of Mynydd Baedan near Maesteg in South Wales, and Bowden Hill in Wiltshire. [39]

Modern depictions

King Arthur leads the Knights of the Round Table into battle against the Saxons led by Hengist in the Prince Valiant comic strip series episodes 1430 (5 July 1964) and following. [40] The battle is mentioned in the 1975 comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail as one of the many questionable feats of Sir Robin, who in the film's bardic narration is said to have "personally wet himself at the Battle of Badon Hill". [41] The battle is featured prominently in 1997's Excalibur: A Novel of Arthur by Bernard Cornwell, in the book's second part, "Mynydd Baddon", in which the armies of Angle and Saxon kings Aelle and Cerdic, aided by Celtic traitors led by Lancelot, are defeated in an epic battle by an uneasy alliance of various British and Irish kingdoms. The author combines various medieval accounts of the battle, such as it beginning as an Anglo-Saxon siege of a hilltop (here initially desperately defended by Guinevere, who is depicted as a brilliant strategist and rallying figure [42] ) and having Arthur's cavalry appear with the sign of the cross on their shields (here a requisite demanded by the Christian king Tewdric for him to also join the battle), to create a more grounded and realistic depiction than the ones from his medieval sources. [43] The 2004 film King Arthur ends in a climactic battle scene occurring along Hadrian's Wall as the mostly Romano-British forces of Arthur defeat those of the Saxon kings Cerdic and Cynric, at a heavy cost to Arthur. [44]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Latin: obsessio[nis] Badonici montis, "Blockade/Siege of the Badonic Hill"; Bellum in monte Badonis, "Battle on Badon Hill"; Bellum Badonis, "Battle of Badon"; Old Welsh: Badon; Middle Welsh: Gweith Vadon, "Battle of Badon"; Welsh: Brwydr Mynydd Baddon, "Battle of Badon Mount/Hill"
  2. ↑ Per Bede's account. The actual dates of their reign were AD 450–455. [10]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ambrosius Aurelianus</span> 5th-century Romano-British warlord

Ambrosius Aurelianus was a war leader of the Romano-British who won an important battle against the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century, according to Gildas. He also appeared independently in the legends of the Britons, beginning with the 9th-century Historia Brittonum. Eventually, he was transformed by Geoffrey of Monmouth into the uncle of King Arthur, the brother of Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, as a ruler who precedes and predeceases them both. He also appears as a young prophet who meets the tyrant Vortigern; in this guise, he was later transformed into the wizard Merlin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King Arthur</span> Legendary British leader of the late 5th and early 6th centuries

King Arthur, according to legends, was a king of Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gildas</span> British monk, writer and saint (c. 500 – c. 570)

Gildas — also known as Gildas Badonicus, Gildas fab Caw and Gildas Sapiens — was a 6th-century British monk best known for his scathing religious polemic De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, which recounts the history of the Britons before and during the coming of the Saxons. He is one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sub-Roman period, and was renowned for his Biblical knowledge and literary style. In his later life, he emigrated to Brittany where he founded a monastery known as Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vortigern</span> 5th-century ruler in Sub-Roman Britain

Vortigern, also spelled Vortiger, Vortigan, Voertigern and Vortigen, was a 5th-century warlord in Britain, known perhaps as a king of the Britons or at least connoted as such in the writings of Bede and Gildas. His existence is contested by scholars and information about him is obscure.

The History of the Britons is a purported history of early Britain written around 828 that survives in numerous recensions from after the 11th century. The Historia Brittonum is commonly attributed to Nennius, as some recensions have a preface written in that name. Some experts have dismissed the Nennian preface as a late forgery and argued that the work was actually an anonymous compilation.

Nennius – or Nemnius or Nemnivus – was a Welsh monk of the 9th century. He has traditionally been attributed with the authorship of the Historia Brittonum, based on the prologue affixed to that work. This attribution is widely considered a secondary (10th-century) tradition.

<i>Annales Cambriae</i> Chronicle of medieval British history

The Annales Cambriae is the title given to a complex of Latin chronicles compiled or derived from diverse sources at St David's in Dyfed, Wales. The earliest is a 12th-century presumed copy of a mid-10th-century original; later editions were compiled in the 13th century. Despite the name, the Annales Cambriae record not only events in Wales, but also events in Ireland, Cornwall, England, Scotland and sometimes further afield, though the focus of the events recorded especially in the later two-thirds of the text is Wales.

<i>Historia Regum Britanniae</i> Pseudohistorical account of British history (c.1136)

Historia regum Britanniae, originally called De gestis Britonum, is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It chronicles the lives of the kings of the Britons over the course of two thousand years, beginning with the Trojans founding the British nation and continuing until the Anglo-Saxons assumed control of much of Britain around the 7th century. It is one of the central pieces of the Matter of Britain.

Vortimer, also known as Saint Vortimer, is a figure in British tradition, a son of the 5th-century Britonnic ruler Vortigern. He is remembered for his fierce opposition to his father's Saxon allies. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, he overthrows his father and reigns as King of Britain for a brief period before his death restores Vortigern to power.

Aurelius Conanus or Aurelius Caninus was a Brittonic king in 6th-century sub-Roman Britain. The only certain historical record of him is in the writings of his contemporary Gildas, who excoriates him as a tyrant. However, he may be identified with one of the several similarly named figures active in Britain during this period. In the 12th century Geoffrey of Monmouth adapted Gildas' account for his chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae, and thereafter Aurelius Conanus was remembered as a legendary King of Britain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vortiporius</span> 6th-century King of Dyfed

Vortiporius or Vortipor was a king of Dyfed in the early to mid-6th century. He ruled over an area approximately corresponding to modern Pembrokeshire, and Carmarthenshire, Wales. Records from this era are scant, and virtually nothing is known of him or his kingdom. The only contemporary information about Vortiporius comes from the Welsh ecclesiastic Gildas, in a highly allegorical condemnation from his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. At the time the work was written, Gildas says that Vortiporius was king of Dyfed, that he was grey with age, that his wife had died, and that he had at least one daughter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Historicity of King Arthur</span> Debate about whether King Arthur was a historical person

The historicity of King Arthur has been debated both by academics and popular writers. While there have been many claims that King Arthur was a real historical person, the current consensus among specialists on the period holds him to be a mythological or folkloric figure.

The Groans of the Britons is the final appeal made between 446 and 454 by the Britons to the Roman military for assistance against Pict and Scot raiders. The appeal is first referenced in Gildas' 6th-century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae; Gildas' account was later repeated in chapter 13 of Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. According to Gildas, the message was addressed to "Agitius", who is generally identified with the general Flavius Aetius. The collapsing Western Roman Empire had few military resources to spare during its decline, and the record is ambiguous on what the response to the appeal was, if any. According to Gildas and various later medieval sources, the failure of the Roman armies to secure Britain led the Britons to invite Anglo-Saxon mercenaries to the island, precipitating the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain.

Historians in England during the Middle Ages helped to lay the groundwork for modern historical historiography, providing vital accounts of the early history of England, Wales and Normandy, its cultures, and revelations about the historians themselves.

The Treason of the Long Knives is an account of a massacre of British Celtic chieftains by Anglo-Saxon soldiers at a peace conference on Salisbury Plain in the 5th century. The story is thought to be pseudohistorical as the only surviving records mentioning it are centuries later in the semi-mythological histories of the Historia Brittonum and the Historia Regum Britanniae. Though a popular cautionary tale in medieval Europe, there is no other historical evidence for The Treason of the Long Knives. Most historians interpret the story as a purely literary construction.

Octa was an Anglo-Saxon King of Kent during the 6th century. Sources disagree on his relationship to the other kings in his line; he may have been the son of Hengist or Oisc, and may have been the father of Oisc or Eormenric. The dates of his reign are unclear, but he may have ruled from 512 to 534 or from 516 to 540. Despite his shadowy recorded history Octa made an impact on the Britons, who describe his deeds in several sources.

De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae is a work written in Latin by the probably 6th-century AD British cleric St Gildas. It is a sermon in three parts condemning the acts of Gildas' contemporaries, both secular and religious, whom he blames for the dire state of affairs in sub-Roman Britain. It is one of the most important sources for the history of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries, as it is the only significant source for the period written by a near contemporary of the people and events described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rowena</span> Mythological wife of "king of the Britons"

Rowena in the Matter of Britain was the daughter of the purported Anglo-Saxon chief Hengist and wife of Vortigern, "King of the Britons". Presented as a beautiful femme fatale, she won her people the Kingdom of Kent through her treacherous seduction of Vortigern. Contemporary sources are nearly non-existent, so it is impossible to know if she actually existed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Guoloph</span> Fifth-century conflict in England

The Battle of Guoloph, also known as the Battle of Wallop, took place in the 5th century. Various dates have been put forward: 440 AD by Alfred Anscombe, 437 AD according to John Morris, and 458 by Nikolai Tolstoy. It took place at what is now Nether Wallop, 15 kilometers southeast of Amesbury, in the district of Test Valley, northeastern Hampshire. The battle was an internal conflict between the rival Britonnic forces of Ambrosius Aurelianus and Vortigern (Vitalinus).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andrew Breeze</span> British linguist and philologist (born 1954)

Andrew Breeze FRHistS FSA, has been professor of philology at the University of Navarra since 1987.

References

  1. ↑ Ashe, Geoffrey, From Caesar to Arthur pp. 295–8.
  2. ↑ Dupuy, R. Ernest & al. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History From 3500 B.C. to the Present, 4th ed., p. 193. HarperCollins Pub. (New York), 1993.
  3. ↑ Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of England to 1399, 8th ed., p. 31. Houghton Mifflin Co. (New York), 2001.
  4. ↑ Hugh Williams (ed.), Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, 1899, p. 61–63.
  5. ↑ Hugh Williams (ed.), Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, 1899, p. 61–63.
  6. ↑ Green, p. 31.
  7. ↑ The "Tiberius Bede" or C text. British Library MS Cotton Tiberius C.II. (in Latin)
  8. ↑ Bede. The Ecclesiastical History of the English People , I.xvi.
  9. ↑ L. ...usque ad annum obsessionis Badonici montis quando non minimas eisdem hostibus strages dabant quadragesimo circiter & quarto anno adventus eorum in Britaniam.
  10. ↑ Bede, I.xv.
  11. ↑ Bede, I.xx.
  12. ↑ The "Nennius" entry of the Dictionary of National Biography credits an 11th-century Irish edition by Giolla Coemgin with being the oldest extant edition of the Historia Brittonum, but it apparently only survived in a 14th-century copy. Cf. Todd, James. Irish version of the Historia Britonum of Nennius . Irish Archaeological Soc. (Dublin), 1848. Accessed 6 February 2013.
  13. ↑ L. Duodecimum fuit bellum in monte Badonis, in quo corruerunt in uno die nongenti sexaginta viri de uno impetu Arthur; et nemo prostravit eos nisi ipse solus. Mommsen, Theodore (ed.) Historia Brittonum . Accessed 7 February 2013. (in Latin)
  14. ↑ Lupack, Alan (Trans.) The Camelot Project: "From The History of the Britons (Historia Brittonum) by Nennius". Retrieved 6 February 2013.
  15. 1 2 3 Harleian MS. 3859. Op. cit. Phillimore, Egerton. Y Cymmrodor 9 (1888), pp. 141–183. (in Latin)
  16. ↑ The words for "shoulder" and "shield" being easily confused in Old Welsh: scuit (shield) vs. scuid (shoulder)]. Cf. Jones, W. Lewis. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes, Vol. I, XII, §2. Putnam, 1921. Accessed 30 January 2013.
  17. ↑ L. Bellum badonis inquo arthur portauit crucem domini nostri ihu xp'i . tribus diebus & tribus noctibus inhumeros suos & brittones uictores fuerunt.
  18. 1 2 Ingram, James. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . Everyman Press (London), 1912.
  19. ↑ The earliest two being the Cambridge 1706 II.I.14 and Berne Stadtbibliotek MS 568, both apparently from the year of composition. Cf. Griscom, Acton. The Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth . Longmans, Green, & Co., 1929. Accessed 7 February 2013.
  20. ↑ Thompson. VII.iii.
  21. ↑ Thompson, Aaron & al. (trans.) History of the Kings of Britain , IX.iv. In Parentheses, 1999. Accessed 6 February 2013.
  22. ↑ Andrew Breeze, British Battles 493–937: Mount Badon to Brunanburh (2020: Anthem Press), pp. 1–10.
  23. ↑ Daniel P. McCarthy and Dáibhí Ó Cróinín. "The 'lost' Irish 84-year Easter table rediscovered". Peritia, vol. 6–7, 1987–1988, pp. 227–242.
  24. ↑ Breeze, Andrew (2020). British Battles 493-937: Mount Badon to Brunanburh. London. pp. 4–9. doi:10.2307/j.ctvv4187r. ISBN   9781785272233. JSTOR   j.ctvv4187r. S2CID   243164764.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ↑ Burkitt, Tim and Annette. "The Frontier Zone and the Siege of Mount Badon: A Review of the Evidence for their Location". Proceedings of the Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society 1990, vol. 134. pp. 81–93.
  26. ↑ Burkitt, Tim and Bennett, Annette, "Badon as Bath", Popular Archaeology, April 1985, Vol. 6, No. 6.
  27. ↑ Hirst, S. et al. "Liddington Castle and the battle of Badon : Excavations and research 1976". Archaeological Journal. 1996, vol. 153, pp. 1–59.
  28. ↑ Ashe, Geoffrey. From Caesar to Arthur, pp. 162–164.
  29. ↑ Wood, Michael. In Search of Myths and Heroes (2005). pp. 219–220.
  30. ↑ Carr, R. (2001), "Badbury or Badon", Dorset life, 267: 5–7.
  31. ↑ Cooper, David: Badon and the Early Wars for Wessex, circa 500 to 710 (2018: Pen & Sword Books)
  32. ↑ Andrew Breeze, British Battles 493–937: Mount Badon to Brunanburh (2020: Anthem Press), pp. 6–7.
  33. ↑ Bradbury, James (2004). The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. New York: Routledge. p. 140. ISBN   0-415-22126-9.
  34. ↑ Warner, Philip (1972). British Battlefields: The Midlands. Reading: Osprey. p. 23. OCLC   60058359.
  35. ↑ of Monmouth, Geoffrey (1848). "Six Old English Chronicles/Geoffrey's British History/Book 9 translated and edited by J.A. Giles". en.wikisource.org.
  36. ↑ L. Primum pasca apud saxones celebratur. Bellum badonis secundo. morcant moritur.
  37. ↑ Public Record Office of the United Kingdom. MS. E.164/1, p. 8. (in Latin)
  38. ↑ Scott, Shane (1995). The Hidden Places of Somerset. Aldermaston: Travel Publishing Ltd. p. 16. ISBN   1-902007-01-8.
  39. ↑ Echard, Sian; Rouse, Robert; Fay, Jacqueline A.; Fulton, Helen; Rector, Geoff (7 August 2017). The Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature in Britain, 4 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   9781118396988.
  40. ↑ Prince Valiant, Vol. 32, The Battle of Badon Hill, 1997, Fantagraphics Books.
  41. ↑ Harty, Kevin J. (1 January 2002). Cinema Arthuriana: Twenty Essays. McFarland. ISBN   9780786413447 – via Google Books.
  42. ↑ Brennan, Michael; Miller, Jacqui (11 May 2017). Theorising the Popular. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN   9781443893718 – via Google Books.
  43. ↑ Sullivan, Tony (14 July 2022). The Battles of King Arthur. Pen and Sword History. ISBN   9781399015332 – via Google Books.
  44. ↑ "King Arthur (2004) · Medieval Hollywood". medievalhollywood.ace.fordham.edu.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.