Santalum album

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Santalum album
Santalum album - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-128.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Santalales
Family: Santalaceae
Genus: Santalum
Species:
S. album
Binomial name
Santalum album
L.
The light green calyx gradually turns dark red. Some calyces have four sepals and some have five. Tan Xiang Santalum album 20210712091332 04.jpg
The light green calyx gradually turns dark red. Some calyces have four sepals and some have five.

Santalum album, or Indian sandalwood, is a small tropical tree, and the traditional source of sandalwood oil. It is native to southern India and Southeast Asia. It is considered sacred in some religions like Hinduism, and some cultures place great significance on its fragrant qualities. However, the high value of the species has caused over-exploitation, to the point where the wild population is vulnerable to extinction. Indian sandalwood still commands high prices for its essential oil owing to its high alpha santalol content, but due to lack of sizable trees it is no longer used for fine woodworking as before. The plant is long-lived, but harvest is only viable after many years.

Contents

Description

Flowers in Hyderabad, India. Santalum album (Chandan) in Hyderabad, AP W2 IMG 0023.jpg
Flowers in Hyderabad, India.

Santalum album is an evergreen tree that grows between 4–9 metres (13–30 feet). [2] The tree is variable in habit, usually upright to sprawling, and may intertwine with other species. The plant parasitises the roots of other tree species, with a haustorium adaptation on its own roots, but without major detriment to its hosts. [3] An individual will form a non-obligate relationship with a number of other plants. [4] Up to 300 species (including its own) can host the tree's development - supplying macronutrients phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium, and shade - especially during early phases of development. It may propagate itself through wood suckering during its early development, establishing small stands. The reddish or brown bark can be almost black and is smooth in young trees, becoming cracked with a red reveal. The heartwood is pale green to white as the common name indicates. The leaves are thin, opposite and ovate to lanceolate in shape. Glabrous surface is shiny and bright green, with a glaucous pale reverse. Fruit is produced after three years, viable seeds after five. These seeds are distributed by birds.

A ripened fruit of Santalum album from Panchkhal Valley, Nepal. Santalum album Fruit Krish.jpg
A ripened fruit of Santalum album from Panchkhal Valley, Nepal.

Taxonomy

History

Santalum album has been known for four thousand years by its Sanskrit name chandana. The first extraction of its essential oil occurred in Mysore, India in 1917. For many years, the oils were extracted in the perfumeries at Grasse, France. Production is now controlled by the Indian state, and demand exceeds supply. [5]

Nomenclature

The nomenclature for other "sandalwoods" and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species' historical and widespread use. Etymologically it is derived from Sanskrit chandanam, meaning "wood for burning incense", and related to candrah, meaning "shining, glowing". [6]

Santalum album is included in the family Santalaceae, and is commonly known as white or East Indian sandalwood. [7] The name, Santalum ovatum, used by Robert Brown in Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae (1810) was described as a synonym of this species by Alex George in 1984. [8] The epithet album refers to the "white" of the heartwood.

The species was the first to be known as sandalwood. Other species in the genus Santalum , such as the Australian S. spicatum , are also referred to as true sandalwoods, to distinguish them from trees with similar-smelling wood or oil.

Phytochemistry

Sandalwood oil consists of about 80% α-santalol and β-santolol, predominantly the former, which are sesquiterpenes. Attempts to synthesise these date to 1947 by Givaudan in Switzerland. The resulting isobornyl cyclohexanol can be distinguished from santolol, but is much cheaper. Since then other synthetic sandalwood oils have been used in laundry detergents and textiles. [9] Three of the terpene synthase genes producing components employed in host defense are present in S. album. [10] [11]

Distribution

Santalum album is indigenous to the tropical belt of the peninsular India, eastern Indonesia and northern Australia. [12] [13] The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba. [14] There is still debate as to whether S. album is native to Australia and India or was introduced by fishermen, traders or birds from southeast Asia centuries ago. [15] [16]

Sandalwood is now cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Northern Australia.

Habitat and growth

SantalumAlbumLeaf.jpg

S. album occurs from coastal dry forests up to 700 metres (2,300 ft) elevation. It normally grows in sandy or well drained stony red soils, but a wide range of soil types are inhabited. This habitat has a temperature range from 0 to 38 °C (32 to 100 °F) and annual rainfall between 500 millimetres (20 in) and 3,000 millimetres (120 in). S. album can grow up to 9.1 metres (30 ft) vertically. It should be planted in good sunlight and does not require a lot of water. The tree starts to flower after seven years. When the tree is still young the flowers are white and with age they turn red or orange. The trunk of the tree starts to develop its fragrance after about 10 years of growth, but is not ready to harvest till after 20. The tree rarely lives more than 100 years. [17]

Conservation

S. album is recognized as a "vulnerable" species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). [18] It is threatened by over-exploitation and degradation to habitat through altered land use, fire (to which this species is extremely sensitive), Spike disease, agriculture, and land-clearing are the factors of most concern. To preserve this vulnerable resource from over-exploitation, legislation protects the species, and cultivation is researched and developed. [19] [20] [21]

Until 2002, individuals in India were not allowed to grow sandalwood. Due to its scarcity, sandalwood is not allowed to be cut or harvested by individuals. The State grants specific permission to officials who then can cut down the tree and sell its wood. [22] The Indian government has placed a ban on the export of the timber. [1]

Uses and production

Young sapling SantalumAlbumSapling.jpg
Young sapling

S. album has been the primary source of sandalwood and the derived oil. These often hold an important place in the societies of their naturalised distribution range. The central part of the tree, the heartwood, is the only part of the tree that is used for its fragrance. It is yellow-brown in color, hard with an oily texture and due to its durability, is a preferred material for carving. The outer part of the tree, the sapwood, is unscented. The sapwood is white or yellow in color and is used to make turnery items. The high value of sandalwood has led to attempts at cultivation, this has increased the distribution range of the plant. It was valued in construction, since it was considered rotproof. [17]

The ISO Standard for the accepted characteristics of this essential oil is ISO 3518:2002. [23] HPTLC and GC,[ citation needed ] GC-MS based methods are used for qualitative and quantitative analyses of the volatile [24] essential oil constituents.

Indian sandalwood has a high santalol content, at about 90%, compared with the other main source of the oil, the cheaper [9] Santalum spicatum (Australian sandalwood), at around 39%, and India used to dominate production of sandalwood oil world-wide, but the industry has been in decline in the 21st century. [25] Another source is Santalum austrocaledonicum from New Caledonia. Sandalwood is used in the production of the perfume Samsara by Guerlain (1989). [9]

The long maturation period and difficulty in cultivation have restricted extensive planting. Harvest of the tree involves several curing and processing stages, also adding to the commercial value. The wood and oil are in high demand and are an important trade item in three main regions:

India

The use of S. album in India is noted in literature for over two thousand years. It has use as wood and oil in religious practices, and was burned in cremation. In modern times only a small fragment is added to the pyre for symbolic purposes. [17] It also features as a construction material in temples and elsewhere. The Indian government has banned the export of the species to reduce the threat by over-harvesting. In the southern Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, [26] and Tamil Nadu all trees of greater than a specified girth were the property of the state until 2001/2. [25] Cutting of trees, even on private property, was regulated by the Forest Department. [26] After that, they were allowed to be sold to private growers, but the product can only be sold to the state forest department. Annual production fell from a high of 4,000 tonnes in the early 1970s, to fewer than 300 tonnes in 2011. The decline is blamed on government policy and over-exploitation, and moves have been made to encourage planters to grow the trees again. [25]

Australia

The native species, Santalum spicatum , is more common and extensively grown in Western Australia, but as of 2020 there are two commercial Indian sandalwood plantations in full operation based in Kununurra, in the far north of Western Australia: Quintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services), which in 2017 controlled around 80 per cent of the world's supply of Indian sandalwood, [27] and Santanol. [28]

Comoros

Indian sandalwood is grated against a stone, coral, or ceramic surface to make a sun-protective medicinal paste called msindzano, worn on the faces of women and girls in Comoros. [29]

Sri Lanka

The harvesting of sandalwood is preferred to be of trees that are advanced in age. Saleable wood can, however, be of trees as young as seven years. The entire plant is removed rather than cut to the base, as in coppiced species. The extensive removal of S. album over the past century led to increased vulnerability to extinction. [1]

As of 2020, small plantations of Indian sandalwood also exist in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and the Pacific Islands. [30]

China

Sandalwood has been used over a longtime in China for the construction of statues and temples, and was burned in censers during religious rites. [17]

Egypt

Sandalwood was used for embalming mummies, and later was burned as part of Muslim funerals. [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandalwood</span> Class of woods from trees in the genus Santalum

Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees in the genus Santalum. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods. Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world. Both the wood and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that has been highly valued for centuries. Consequently, some species of these slow-growing trees have suffered over-harvesting in the past.

<i>Santalum</i> Genus of flowering plant in the mistletoe family Santalaceae

Santalum is a genus of woody flowering plants in the Santalaceae family, the best known and commercially valuable of which is the Indian sandalwood tree, S. album. Members of the genus are trees or shrubs. Most are root parasites which photosynthesize their own food, but tap the roots of other species for water and inorganic nutrients. Several species, most notably S. album, produce highly aromatic wood, used for scents and perfumes and for herbal medicine. About 25 known species range across the Indomalayan, Australasian, and Oceanian realms, from India through Malesia to the Pacific Islands, as far as Hawaiʻi and the Juan Fernández Islands off the coast of South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agarwood</span> Fragrant wood of some Thymelaeoideae

Agarwood, aloeswood, eaglewood, gharuwood or the Wood of Gods, most commonly referred to as oud or oudh, is a fragrant, dark and resinous wood used in incense, perfume, and small hand carvings. It forms in the heartwood of Aquilaria trees after they become infected with a type of Phaeoacremonium mold, P. parasitica. The tree defensively secretes a resin to combat the fungal infestation. Prior to becoming infected, the heartwood mostly lacks scent, and is relatively light and pale in colouration. However, as the infection advances and the tree produces its fragrant resin as a final option of defense, the heartwood becomes very dense, dark, and saturated with resin. This product is harvested, and most famously referred to in cosmetics under the scent names of oud, oodh or aguru; however, it is also called aloes, agar, as well as gaharu or jinko. With thousands of years of known use, and valued across Muslim, Christian, and Hindu communities, oud is prized in Middle Eastern and South Asian cultures for its distinctive fragrance, utilized in colognes, incense and perfumes.

<i>Santalum acuminatum</i> Species of plant

Santalum acuminatum, the desert quandong, is a hemiparasitic plant in the sandalwood family, Santalaceae, which is widely dispersed throughout the central deserts and southern areas of Australia. The species, especially its edible fruit, is also commonly referred to as quandong or native peach. The use of the fruit as an exotic flavouring, one of the best known bush tucker, has led to the attempted domestication of the species.

<i>Acacia acuminata</i> Species of legume

Acacia acuminata, commonly known as raspberry jam, jam or jam tree is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. it is a tree with linear to narrowly elliptic phyllodes, spikes of golden-yellow flowers and papery to leathery pods.

<i>Santalum spicatum</i> Australian sandalwood

Santalum spicatum, the Australian sandalwood, also Waang and other names (Noongar) and Dutjahn (Martu), is a tree native to semi-arid areas at the edge of Southwest Australia, in the state of Western Australia. It is also found in South Australia, where it is protected and listed as a vulnerable species. It is traded as sandalwood, and its sandalwood oil has been used as an aromatic and a food source over history. S. spicatum is one of four Santalum species occurring in Australia.

<i>Santalum haleakalae</i> Species of tree

Santalum haleakalae, known as Haleakala sandalwood or ʻIliahi in Hawaiian, is a species of flowering tree in the sandalwood family, that is endemic to the islands of Maui, Lanai, and Molokai in the Hawaiian Islands, part of the United States. It grows in subalpine shrublands at elevations of 1,900 to 2,700 m, especially on the slopes of Haleakalā.

α-Santalol Chemical compound

α-Santalol, also referred to as alpha-santalol, is an organic compound that is classified as a sesquiterpene. It comprises about 55% of the oil of sandalwood, another less abundant component being β-santalol. As of 2002, about 60 tons of sandalwood oil are produced annually by steam distillation of the heartwood of Santalum album. It is a valued component for perfumes.

Sandalwood is the common name of many species of plants and their wood and oils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sandalwood oil</span> Essential oil

Sandalwood oil is an essential oil obtained from the steam distillation of chips and billets cut from the heartwood of various species of sandalwood trees, mainly Santalum album and Santalum spicatum.

<i>Santalum freycinetianum</i> Species of tree

Santalum freycinetianum, the forest sandalwood, Freycinet sandalwood, or ʻIliahi, is a species of flowering tree in the European mistletoe family, Santalaceae, that is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Its binomial name commemorates Henri Louis Claude de Saulces de Freycinet, a 19th-century French explorer. ʻIliahi inhabits dry, coastal mesic, mixed mesic, and wet forests on Oʻahu, Kauaʻi, Lānaʻi, Maui, and Molokaʻi at elevations of 250–950 m (820–3,120 ft). It grows in areas that receive 500–3,800 mm (20–150 in) of annual rainfall. Like other members of its genus, ʻiliahi is a root hemi-parasite, deriving some of its nutrients from the host plant; common hosts include koa, koaiʻa, and ʻaʻaliʻi.

<i>Santalum ellipticum</i> Species of tree

Santalum ellipticum, commonly known as ʻIliahialoʻe (Hawaiian) or coastal sandalwood, is a species of flowering plant in the mistletoe family, Santalaceae, that is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is a sprawling shrub to small tree, typically reaching a height of 1–5 m (3.3–16.4 ft) and a canopy spread of 1–3 m (3.3–9.8 ft), but is extremely variable in size and shape. Like other members of the genus, S. ellipticum is a hemi-parasite, deriving some of its nutrients from the host plant by attaching to its roots.

<i>Cassia abbreviata</i> Species of legume

Cassia abbreviata, commonly known as the sjambok pod or long-tail cassia, is a mostly tropical tree species in the genus Cassia, which is native to Africa.

<i>Osyris compressa</i> Species of flowering plant in the mistletoe family Santalaceae

Osyris compressa is a facultatively hemiparasitic, mainly South African plant of the sandalwood family, Santalaceae. Until recently, the favoured binomial name was Colpoon compressum, but around 2001, the genus Colpoon was included in Osyris on the basis of comparative DNA studies. That assignment is not final, however, and according to the Kew Gardens plant list, Colpoon compressum P.J.Bergius, though still in review, is the accepted name.

<i>Dalbergia latifolia</i> Species of legume

Dalbergia latifolia is a premier timber species, also known as the Indian rosewood. It is native to low-elevation tropical monsoon forests of south east India. Some common names in English include rosewood, Bombay blackwood, roseta rosewood, East Indian rosewood, reddish-brown rosewood, Indian palisandre, and Java palisandre. Its Indian common names are beete, and satisal. The tree grows to 40 metres (130 ft) in height and is evergreen, but locally deciduous in drier subpopulations.

Sesbania rostrata is a small semi-aquatic leguminous tree, in the genus Sesbania. It forms a symbiotic relationship with Gram-negative rhizobia which leads to the formation of nitrogen fixing nodules on both stem and roots. It is mainly used as green manure to improve soil fertility due to its fast growth, high biomass production and ability to convert large amounts of atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plants. Other applications include production of high quality forage for livestock and it is a source of fuel-wood.

Osyris daruma is a species of plant in the family Santalaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mysore Sandalwood Oil</span>

Mysore Sandalwood Oil is a trademarked perfume oil extracted from the Santalum album variety of sandalwood tree in the Mysore district of Karnataka, India. The tree species is said to be one of the best varieties in the world.

Ximenynic acid is trans-11-octadecen-9-ynoic acid, a long-chain acetylenic fatty acid.

<i>Albizia procera</i> Species of tree

Albizia procera, commonly known as white siris or karoi tree, is a species of large tree found natively in southeast Asia and India. It is most commonly found in open forests, but may also be found on the margins of rain forests and in monsoon and gallery forests. It is considered an invasive species in South Africa.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Arunkumar, A.N.; Dhyani, A.; Joshi, G. (2019). "Santalum album". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T31852A2807668. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T31852A2807668.en . Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ↑ Fatima, Tanzeem; Srivastava, Ashutosh; Somashekar, P. V.; Hanur, Vageeshbabu S.; Rao, M. Srinivasa; Bisht, Surendra Singh (July 2019). "Assessment of morphological and genetic variability through genic microsatellite markers for essential oil in Sandalwood (Santalum album L.)". 3 Biotech. 9 (7): 252. doi:10.1007/s13205-019-1758-9. ISSN   2190-572X. PMC   6555841 . PMID   31192077.
  3. ↑ Spallek, Thomas; Melnyk, Charles W.; Wakatake, Takanori; Zhang, Jing; Sakamoto, Yuki; Kiba, Takatoshi; Yoshida, Satoko; Matsunaga, Sachihiro; Sakakibara, Hitoshi; Shirasu, Ken (2017-05-16). "Interspecies hormonal control of host root morphology by parasitic plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (20): 5283–5288. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.5283S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1619078114 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   5441792 . PMID   28461500.
  4. ↑ "Santalaceae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-06-22.
  5. ↑ Ellena 2022, pp. 12–14.
  6. ↑ "Sandalwood (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
  7. ↑ Santalum (IPNI)
  8. ↑ "Santalum ovatum". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government. George, A.S. & Hewson, H.J. in George, A.S. (Ed) (1984), Flora of Australia 22: 61, 63, Fig. 18D, Map 71
  9. 1 2 3 Ellena 2022, p. 14.
  10. ↑ Al-Harrasi, Ahmed; Khan, Abdul Latif; Rehman, Najeeb Ur; Csuk, René (2021). "Biosynthetic diversity in triterpene cyclization within the Boswellia genus". Phytochemistry . 184: 112660. Bibcode:2021PChem.184k2660A. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2021.112660. ISSN   0031-9422. PMID   33524859. S2CID   231755434.
  11. ↑ Zhang, Xinhua; Niu, Meiyun; Teixeira da Silva, Jaime A.; Zhang, Yueya; Yuan, Yunfei; Jia, Yongxia; Xiao, Yangyang; Li, Yuan; Fang, Lin; Zeng, Songjun; Ma, Guohua (2019-03-28). "Identification and functional characterization of three new terpene synthase genes involved in chemical defense and abiotic stresses in Santalum album". BMC Plant Biology . 19 (1): 115. doi: 10.1186/s12870-019-1720-3 . ISSN   1471-2229. PMC   6437863 . PMID   30922222.
  12. ↑ Orwa, Mutua. "Santalum album L. (Orwa et al.2009)" (PDF). old.worldagroforestry.org. Agroforestry Database. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
  13. ↑ Dhanya, Bhaskar; Viswanath, Syam; Purushothman, Seema (2010). "Sandal (Santalum album L.) conservation in southern India: A review of policies and their impacts". Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 48 (1–2): 1–10. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
  14. ↑ Orwa, Mutua. "Santalum album L. (Orwa et al.2009)" (PDF). old.worldagroforestry.org. Agroforestry Database. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
  15. ↑ Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2007–2008). "The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond". eJournal of Indian Medicine. 1: 87–140.
  16. ↑ Orwa, Mutua. "Santalum album L." (PDF). old.worldagroforestry.org. Agroforestry Database. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Ellena 2022, p. 12.
  18. ↑ "Conservation & environmental". Sandalwood Oil specialist. Archived from the original on 2017-04-05. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
  19. ↑ Rado, Andrew (July 1994). "5.4 Sandalwood (Santalum spp.)". Australian New Crops Newsletter (2). University of Queensland. Archived from the original on Apr 27, 2013.
  20. ↑ Friends of the Australian Arid Lands Botanic Garden - "Plants: Sandalwood, Santalum spicatum".
  21. ↑ "Sandalwood" (PDF). Forest Products Commission. WA Gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-20. Retrieved 2007-01-31.
  22. ↑ Vijay, Hema (June 5, 2015). "Time to lift restrictions on planting sandalwood?" . The Hindu. Archived from the original on 2017-04-05. Retrieved 2017-04-05.
  23. ↑ ISO 3518:2002
  24. ↑ Misra, Biswapriya B.; Das, Shibendu S.; Dey, Satyahari (2013). "Volatile profiling from heartwood of East Indian sandalwood tree". Journal of Pharmacy Research. 7 (4): 299–303. doi: 10.1016/j.jopr.2013.04.030 .
  25. 1 2 3 Yousaf, Shamsheer (25 January 2012). "Indian sandalwood production set to lose home ground edge". mint. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
  26. 1 2 Karnataka Forest Department Rules Archived 2007-02-17 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ↑ Jasper, Clint (21 March 2017). "Tropical Forestry Services becomes Quintis as the company shifts focus". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 19 September 2020.
  28. ↑ "About Santanol". Santanol. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
  29. ↑ Misra, Biswapriya B.; Dey, Satyahari (2013-11-12). Biological Activities of East Indian Sandalwood Tree, Santalum album (Report). PeerJ PrePrints.
  30. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions". WA Sandalwood Plantations. Retrieved 19 September 2020.

Bibliography

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