Constipation

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Constipation
Other namesCostiveness, [1] dyschezia [2]
Constipation.JPG
Constipation in a young child seen on X-ray. Circles represent areas of fecal matter (stool is white surrounded by black bowel gas).
Specialty Gastroenterology
Symptoms Infrequent or hard to pass bowel movements, abdominal pain, bloating [2] [3]
Complications Hemorrhoids, anal fissure, fecal impaction [4]
CausesSlow movement of stool within the colon, irritable bowel syndrome, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, pelvic floor disorders [4] [5] [6]
Risk factors Hypothyroidism, diabetes, Parkinson's disease, gluten-related disorders, colon cancer, ovarian cancer, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, certain medications [4] [5] [6]
TreatmentDrinking enough fluids, eating more fiber, exercise [4]
Medication Laxatives of the bulk forming agent, osmotic agent, stool softener, or lubricant type [4]
Frequency2–30% [7]

Constipation is a bowel dysfunction that makes bowel movements infrequent or hard to pass. [2] The stool is often hard and dry. [4] Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, and feeling as if one has not completely passed the bowel movement. [3] Complications from constipation may include hemorrhoids, anal fissure or fecal impaction. [4] The normal frequency of bowel movements in adults is between three per day and three per week. [4] Babies often have three to four bowel movements per day while young children typically have two to three per day. [8]

Contents

Constipation has many causes. [4] Common causes include slow movement of stool within the colon, irritable bowel syndrome, and pelvic floor disorders. [4] Underlying associated diseases include hypothyroidism, diabetes, Parkinson's disease, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, vitamin B12 deficiency, colon cancer, diverticulitis, and inflammatory bowel disease. [4] [5] [6] [9] [10] Medications associated with constipation include opioids, certain antacids, calcium channel blockers, and anticholinergics. [4] Of those taking opioids about 90% develop constipation. [11] Constipation is more concerning when there is weight loss or anemia, blood is present in the stool, there is a history of inflammatory bowel disease or colon cancer in a person's family, or it is of new onset in someone who is older. [12]

Treatment of constipation depends on the underlying cause and the duration that it has been present. [4] Measures that may help include drinking enough fluids, eating more fiber, consumption of honey [13] and exercise. [4] If this is not effective, laxatives of the bulk-forming agent, osmotic agent, stool softener, or lubricant type may be recommended. [4] Stimulant laxatives are generally reserved for when other types are not effective. [4] Other treatments may include biofeedback or in rare cases surgery. [4]

In the general population rates of constipation are 2–30 percent. [7] Among elderly people living in a care home the rate of constipation is 50–75 percent. [11] People spend, in the United States, more than US$250 million on medications for constipation a year. [14]

Definition

Bristol stool scale BristolStoolChart.png
Bristol stool scale

Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Most commonly, constipation is thought of as infrequent bowel movements, usually fewer than 3 stools per week. [15] [16] However, people may have other complaints as well including: [3] [17]

The Rome III Criteria are a set of symptoms that help standardize the diagnosis of constipation in various age groups. These criteria help physicians to better define constipation in a standardized manner.

Causes

The causes of constipation can be divided into congenital, primary, and secondary. [2] The most common kind is primary and not life-threatening. [18] It can also be divided by the age group affected such as children and adults.

Primary or functional constipation is defined by ongoing symptoms for greater than six months not due to an underlying cause such as medication side effects or an underlying medical condition. [2] [19] It is not associated with abdominal pain, thus distinguishing it from irritable bowel syndrome. [2] It is the most common kind of constipation, and is often multifactorial. [18] [20] In adults, such primary causes include: dietary choices such as insufficient dietary fiber or fluid intake, or behavioral causes such as decreased physical activity. In children, causes can include diets low in fiber and fluids, underlying medical conditions, and reluctance to go to the bathroom. [21] In the elderly, common causes have been attributed to insufficient dietary fiber intake, inadequate fluid intake, decreased physical activity, side effects of medications, hypothyroidism, and obstruction by colorectal cancer. [22] Evidence to support these factors however is poor. [22]

Secondary causes include side effects of medications such as opiates, endocrine and metabolic disorders such as hypothyroidism, and obstruction such as from colorectal cancer [20] or ovarian cancer. [23] Celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity may also present with constipation. [5] [24] [6] Cystocele can develop as a result of chronic constipation. [25]

Diet

Constipation can be caused or exacerbated by a low-fiber diet, low liquid intake, or dieting. [17] [26] Dietary fiber helps to decrease colonic transport time, increases stool bulk but simultaneously softens stool. Therefore, diets low in fiber can lead to primary constipation. [20]

Medications

Many medications have constipation as a side effect. Some include (but are not limited to) opioids, diuretics, antidepressants, antihistamines, antispasmodics, anticonvulsants, tricyclic antidepressants, antiarrythmics, beta-adrenoceptor antagonists, anti-diarrheals, 5-HT3 receptor antagonists such as ondansetron, and aluminum antacids. [17] [27] Certain calcium channel blockers such as nifedipine and verapamil can cause severe constipation due to dysfunction of motility in the rectosigmoid colon. [28] Supplements such as calcium and iron supplements can also have constipation as a notable side effect.[ citation needed ]

Medical conditions

Metabolic and endocrine problems which may lead to constipation include: pheochromocytoma, hypercalcemia, hypothyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, porphyria, chronic kidney disease, pan-hypopituitarism, diabetes mellitus, and cystic fibrosis. [17] [18] Constipation is also common in individuals with muscular and myotonic dystrophy. [17]

Systemic diseases that may present with constipation include celiac disease and systemic sclerosis. [5] [24] [29]

Constipation has a number of structural (mechanical, morphological, anatomical) causes, namely through creating space-occupying lesions within the colon that stop the passage of stool, such as colorectal cancer, strictures, rectocoles, anal sphincter damage or malformation and post-surgical changes. Extra-intestinal masses such as other malignancies can also lead to constipation from external compression. [30]

Constipation also has neurological causes, including anismus, descending perineum syndrome, and Hirschsprung's disease. [7] In infants, Hirschsprung's disease is the most common medical disorder associated with constipation. Anismus occurs in a small minority of persons with chronic constipation or obstructed defecation. [31]

Spinal cord lesions and neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and pelvic floor dysfunction [18] can also lead to constipation.

Chagas disease may cause constipation through the destruction of the myenteric plexus. [32] [33]

Psychological

Voluntary withholding of the stool is a common cause of constipation. [17] The choice to withhold can be due to factors such as fear of pain, fear of public restrooms, or laziness. [17] When a child holds in the stool a combination of encouragement, fluids, fiber, and laxatives may be useful to overcome the problem. [34] Early intervention with withholding is important as this can lead to anal fissures. [35]

Congenital

A number of diseases present at birth can result in constipation in children. They are as a group uncommon with Hirschsprung's disease (HD) being the most common. [36] There are also congenital structural anomalies that can lead to constipation, including anterior displacement of the anus, imperforate anus, strictures, and small left colon syndrome. [37]

Pathophysiology

Diagnosis

Significant constipation in the plain X-ray of an 8-year-old Constipation(lots).png
Significant constipation in the plain X-ray of an 8-year-old

The diagnosis is typically made based on a person's description of the symptoms. Bowel movements that are difficult to pass, very firm, or made up of small hard pellets (like those excreted by rabbits) qualify as constipation, even if they occur every day. Constipation is traditionally defined as three or fewer bowel movements per week. [15] Other symptoms related to constipation can include bloating, distension, abdominal pain, headaches, a feeling of fatigue and nervous exhaustion, or a sense of incomplete emptying. [38] Although constipation may be a diagnosis, it is typically viewed as a symptom that requires evaluation to discern a cause.

Description

Distinguish between acute (days to weeks) or chronic (months to years) onset of constipation because this information changes the differential diagnosis. This in the context of accompanied symptoms helps physicians discover the cause of constipation. People often describe their constipation as bowel movements that are difficult to pass, firm stool with lumpy or hard consistency, and excessive straining during bowel movements. Bloating, abdominal distension, and abdominal pain often accompany constipation. [39] Chronic constipation (symptoms present at least three days per month for more than three months) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found. [40]

Poor dietary habits, previous abdominal surgeries, and certain medical conditions can contribute to constipation. Diseases associated with constipation include hypothyroidism, certain types of cancer, and irritable bowel syndrome. Low fiber intake, inadequate amounts of fluids, poor ambulation or immobility, or medications can contribute to constipation. [17] [26] Once the presence of constipation is identified based on a culmination of the symptoms described above, then the cause of constipation should be figured out.

Separating non-life-threatening from serious causes may be partly based on symptoms. For example, colon cancer may be suspected if a person has a family history of colon cancer, fever, weight loss, and rectal bleeding. [15] Other alarming signs and symptoms include family or personal history of inflammatory bowel disease, age of onset over 50, change in stool caliber, nausea, vomiting, and neurological symptoms like weakness, numbness and difficulty urinating. [39]

Examination

A physical examination should involve at least an abdominal exam and rectal exam. Abdominal exam may reveal an abdominal mass if there is significant stool burden and may reveal abdominal discomfort. Rectal examination gives an impression of the anal sphincter tone and whether the lower rectum contains any feces or not. Rectal examination also gives information on the consistency of the stool, the presence of hemorrhoids, blood and whether any perineal irregularities are present including skin tags, fissures, anal warts. [26] [17] [15] Physical examination is done manually by a physician and is used to guide which diagnostic tests to order.

Diagnostic tests

Functional constipation is common and does not warrant diagnostic testing. Imaging and laboratory tests are typically recommended for those with alarm signs or symptoms. [15]

The laboratory tests performed depends on the suspected underlying cause of the constipation. Tests may include CBC (complete blood count), thyroid function tests, serum calcium, serum potassium, etc. [17] [15]

Abdominal X-rays are generally only performed if bowel obstruction is suspected, may reveal extensive impacted fecal matter in the colon, and may confirm or rule out other causes of similar symptoms. [26] [17]

Colonoscopy may be performed if an abnormality in the colon like a tumor is suspected. [15] Other tests rarely ordered include anorectal manometry, anal sphincter electromyography, and defecography. [17]

Colonic propagating pressure wave sequences (PSs) are responsible for discrete movements of the bowel contents and are vital for normal defecation. Deficiencies in PS frequency, amplitude, and extent of propagation are all implicated in severe defecatory dysfunction (SDD). Mechanisms that can normalize these aberrant motor patterns may help rectify the problem. Recently the novel therapy of sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) has been utilized for the treatment of severe constipation. [41]

Criteria

The Rome III Criteria for functional constipation must include two or more of the following and present for the past three months, with symptoms starting for at least 6 months prior to diagnosis. [15]

Prevention

Constipation is usually easier to prevent than to treat. Following the relief of constipation, maintenance with adequate exercise, fluid intake, and high-fiber diet is recommended. [17]

Treatment

A limited number of cases require urgent medical intervention or will result in severe consequences. [3]

The treatment of constipation should focus on the underlying cause if known. The National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) break constipation in adults into two categories: chronic constipation of unknown cause, and constipation due to opiates. [42]

In chronic constipation of unknown cause, the main treatment involves the increased intake of water and fiber (either dietary or as supplements). [18] The routine use of laxatives or enemas is discouraged, as having bowel movements may come to be dependent upon their use. [43]

Fiber supplements

Soluble fiber supplements such as psyllium are generally considered first-line treatment for chronic constipation, compared to insoluble fibers such as wheat bran. Side effects of fiber supplements include bloating, flatulence, diarrhea, and possible malabsorption of iron, calcium, and some medications. However, patients with opiate-induced constipation will likely not benefit from fiber supplements. [35]

Laxatives

If laxatives are used, milk of magnesia or polyethylene glycol are recommended as first-line agents due to their low cost and safety. [3] Stimulants should only be used if this is not effective. [18] In cases of chronic constipation, polyethylene glycol appears superior to lactulose. [44] Prokinetics may be used to improve gastrointestinal motility. A number of new agents have shown positive outcomes in chronic constipation; these include prucalopride [45] and lubiprostone. [46] Cisapride is widely available in third world countries, but has been withdrawn in most of the west. It has not been shown to have a benefit on constipation, while potentially causing cardiac arrhythmias and deaths. [47]

Enemas

Enemas can be used to provide a form of mechanical stimulation. A large volume or high enema [48] can be given to cleanse as much of the colon as possible of feces, [49] [50] and the solution administered commonly contains castile soap which irritates the colon's lining resulting in increased urgency to defecate. [51] However, a low enema is generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract. [52]

Physical intervention

Constipation that resists the above measures may require physical intervention such as manual disimpaction (the physical removal of impacted stool using the hands; see fecal impaction).

Regular exercise

Regular exercise can help improve chronic constipation. [53]

Surgical intervention

In refractory cases, procedures can be performed to help relieve constipation. Sacral nerve stimulation has been demonstrated to be effective in a minority of cases. Colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis is another intervention performed only in patients known to have a slow colonic transit time and in whom a defecation disorder has either been treated or is not present. [3] Because this is a major operation, side effects can include considerable abdominal pain, small bowel obstruction, and post-surgical infections. Furthermore, it has a very variable rate of success and is very case dependent. [35]

Prognosis

Complications that can arise from constipation include hemorrhoids, anal fissures, rectal prolapse, and fecal impaction. [17] [26] [54] [55] Straining to pass stool may lead to hemorrhoids. In later stages of constipation, the abdomen may become distended, hard and diffusely tender. Severe cases ("fecal impaction" or malignant constipation) may exhibit symptoms of bowel obstruction (nausea, vomiting, tender abdomen) and encopresis, where soft stool from the small intestine bypasses the mass of impacted fecal matter in the colon.

Epidemiology

Constipation is the most common chronic gastrointestinal disorder in adults. Depending on the definition employed, it occurs in 2% to 20% of the population. [18] [56] It is more common in women, the elderly and children. [56] Specifically constipation with no known cause affects females more often affected than males. [57] The reasons it occurs more frequently in the elderly is felt to be due to an increasing number of health problems as humans age and decreased physical activity. [19]

History

19th century satirical cartoon of a monkey rejecting an old style clyster for a new design, filled with marshmallow and opium A monkey rejects the old style clyster for his new 'clyso-pompe', which he fills with opium and marshmallow Wellcome V0011775.jpg
19th century satirical cartoon of a monkey rejecting an old style clyster for a new design, filled with marshmallow and opium

Since ancient times different societies have published medical opinions about how health care providers should respond to constipation in patients. [59] In various times and places, doctors have made claims that constipation has all sorts of medical or social causes. [59] Doctors in history have treated constipation in reasonable and unreasonable ways, including use of a spatula mundani. [59]

After the advent of the germ theory of disease then the idea of "auto-intoxication" entered popular Western thought in a fresh way. [59] Enema as a scientific medical treatment and colon cleansing as alternative medical treatment became more common in medical practice. [59]

Since the 1700s in the West there has been some popular thought that people with constipation have some moral failing with gluttony or laziness. [60]

Special populations

Children

Approximately 3% of children have constipation, with girls and boys being equally affected. [37] With constipation accounting for approximately 5% of general pediatrician visits and 25% of pediatric gastroenterologist visits, the symptom carries a significant financial impact upon the healthcare system. [8] While it is difficult to assess an exact age at which constipation most commonly arises, children frequently experience constipation in conjunction with life-changes. Examples include: toilet training, starting or transferring to a new school, and changes in diet. [8] Especially in infants, changes in formula or transitioning from breast milk to formula can cause constipation. The majority of constipation cases are not tied to a medical disease, and treatment can be focused on simply relieving the symptoms. [37]

Postpartum women

The six-week period after pregnancy is called the postpartum stage. [61] During this time, women are at increased risk of being constipated. Multiple studies estimate the prevalence of constipation to be around 25% during the first 3 months. [62] Constipation can cause discomfort for women, as they are still recovering from the delivery process especially if they have had a perineal tear or underwent an episiotomy. [63] Risk factors that increase the risk of constipation in this population include: [63]

Hemorrhoids are common in pregnancy and also may get exacerbated when constipated. Anything that can cause pain with stooling (hemorrhoids, perineal tear, episiotomy) can lead to constipation because patients may withhold from having a bowel movement so as to avoid pain. [63]

The pelvic floor muscles play an important role in helping pass a bowel movement. Injury to those muscles by some of the above risk factors (examples- delivering a large child, lengthy second stage of labor, forceps delivery) can result in constipation. [63] Enemas may be administered during labor and these can also alter bowel movements in the days after giving birth. [61] However, there is insufficient evidence to make conclusions about the effectiveness and safety of laxatives in this group of people. [63]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Defecation</span> Expulsion of feces from the digestive tract

Defecation follows digestion, and is a necessary process by which organisms eliminate a solid, semisolid, or liquid waste material known as feces from the digestive tract via the anus or cloaca. The act has a variety of names ranging from the common, like pooping or crapping, to the technical, e.g. bowel movement, to the obscene (shitting), to the euphemistic, to the juvenile. The topic, usually avoided in polite company, can become the basis for some potty humor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laxative</span> Agents that relax and loosen the bowels and stools

Laxatives, purgatives, or aperients are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fecal incontinence</span> Inability to refrain from defecation

Fecal incontinence (FI), or in some forms, encopresis, is a lack of control over defecation, leading to involuntary loss of bowel contents, both liquid stool elements and mucus, or solid feces. When this loss includes flatus (gas), it is referred to as anal incontinence. FI is a sign or a symptom, not a diagnosis. Incontinence can result from different causes and might occur with either constipation or diarrhea. Continence is maintained by several interrelated factors, including the anal sampling mechanism, and incontinence usually results from a deficiency of multiple mechanisms. The most common causes are thought to be immediate or delayed damage from childbirth, complications from prior anorectal surgery, altered bowel habits. An estimated 2.2% of community-dwelling adults are affected. However, reported prevalence figures vary. A prevalence of 8.39% among non-institutionalized U.S adults between 2005 and 2010 has been reported, and among institutionalized elders figures come close to 50%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Irritable bowel syndrome</span> Functional gastrointestinal disorder

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a "disorder of gut-brain interaction" characterized by a group of symptoms that commonly include abdominal pain, abdominal bloating and changes in the consistency of bowel movements. These symptoms may occur over a long time, sometimes for years. IBS can negatively affect quality of life and may result in missed school or work or reduced productivity at work. Disorders such as anxiety, major depression, and chronic fatigue syndrome are common among people with IBS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hirschsprung's disease</span> Medical condition

Hirschsprung's disease is a birth defect in which nerves are missing from parts of the intestine. The most prominent symptom is constipation. Other symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea and slow growth. Most children develop signs and symptoms shortly after birth. However, others may be diagnosed later in infancy or early childhood. About half of all children with Hirschsprung's disease are diagnosed in the first year of life. Complications may include enterocolitis, megacolon, bowel obstruction and intestinal perforation.

Encopresis is voluntary or involuntary passage of feces outside of toilet-trained contexts in children who are four years or older and after an organic cause has been excluded. Children with encopresis often leak stool into their undergarments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rectal prolapse</span> Medical condition

A rectal prolapse occurs when walls of the rectum have prolapsed to such a degree that they protrude out of the anus and are visible outside the body. However, most researchers agree that there are 3 to 5 different types of rectal prolapse, depending on whether the prolapsed section is visible externally, and whether the full or only partial thickness of the rectal wall is involved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diverticulosis</span> Condition of the wall of the intestine

Diverticulosis is the condition of having multiple pouches (diverticula) in the colon that are not inflamed. These are outpockets of the colonic mucosa and submucosa through weaknesses of muscle layers in the colon wall. Diverticula do not cause symptoms in most people. Diverticular disease occurs when diverticula become clinically inflamed, a condition known as diverticulitis.

Functional constipation, known as chronic idiopathic constipation (CIC), is constipation that does not have a physical (anatomical) or physiological cause. It may have a neurological, psychological or psychosomatic cause. A person with functional constipation may be healthy, yet has difficulty defecating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volvulus</span> Twisting of part of the intestine, causing a bowel obstruction

A volvulus is when a loop of intestine twists around itself and the mesentery that supports it, resulting in a bowel obstruction. Symptoms include abdominal pain, abdominal bloating, vomiting, constipation, and bloody stool. Onset of symptoms may be rapid or more gradual. The mesentery may become so tightly twisted that blood flow to part of the intestine is cut off, resulting in ischemic bowel. In this situation there may be fever or significant pain when the abdomen is touched.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fecal impaction</span> Medical condition

A fecal impaction or an impacted bowel is a solid, immobile bulk of feces that can develop in the rectum as a result of chronic constipation. Fecal impaction is a common result of neurogenic bowel dysfunction and causes immense discomfort and pain. Its treatment includes laxatives, enemas, and pulsed irrigation evacuation (PIE) as well as digital removal. It is not a condition that resolves without direct treatment.

Proctitis is an inflammation of the anus and the lining of the rectum, affecting only the last 6 inches of the rectum.

Abdominal bloating is a short-term disease that affects the gastrointestinal tract. Bloating is generally characterized by an excess buildup of gas, air or fluids in the stomach. A person may have feelings of tightness, pressure or fullness in the stomach; it may or may not be accompanied by a visibly distended abdomen. Bloating can affect anyone of any age range and is usually self-diagnosed, in most cases does not require serious medical attention or treatment. Although this term is usually used interchangeably with abdominal distension, these symptoms probably have different pathophysiological processes, which are not fully understood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blood in stool</span> Medical condition

Blood in stool or rectal bleeding looks different depending on how early it enters the digestive tract—and thus how much digestive action it has been exposed to—and how much there is. The term can refer either to melena, with a black appearance, typically originating from upper gastrointestinal bleeding; or to hematochezia, with a red color, typically originating from lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Evaluation of the blood found in stool depends on its characteristics, in terms of color, quantity and other features, which can point to its source, however, more serious conditions can present with a mixed picture, or with the form of bleeding that is found in another section of the tract. The term "blood in stool" is usually only used to describe visible blood, and not fecal occult blood, which is found only after physical examination and chemical laboratory testing.

The Bristol stool scale is a diagnostic medical tool designed to classify the form of human faeces into seven categories. It is used in both clinical and experimental fields.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human feces</span> Metabolic waste of the human digestive system

Human feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine of humans, but has been further broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. It also contains bacteria and a relatively small amount of metabolic waste products such as bacterially altered bilirubin, and the dead epithelial cells from the lining of the gut. It is discharged through the anus during a process called defecation.

Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome or SRUS is a chronic, benign disorder of the rectal mucosa. It commonly occurs with varying degrees of rectal prolapse. The condition is thought to be caused by different factors, such as long term constipation, straining during defecation, and dyssynergic defecation. Treatment is by normalization of bowel habits, biofeedback, and other conservative measures. In more severe cases various surgical procedures may be indicated. The condition is relatively rare, affecting approximately 1 in 100,000 people per year. It affects mainly adults aged 30–50. Females are affected slightly more often than males. The disorder can be confused clinically with rectal cancer or other conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, even when a biopsy is done.

Obstructed defecation syndrome is a major cause of functional constipation, of which it is considered a subtype. It is characterized by difficult and/or incomplete emptying of the rectum with or without an actual reduction in the number of bowel movements per week. Normal definitions of functional constipation include infrequent bowel movements and hard stools. In contrast, ODS may occur with frequent bowel movements and even with soft stools, and the colonic transit time may be normal, but delayed in the rectum and sigmoid colon.

Constipation in children refers to the medical condition of constipation in children. It is a functional gastrointestinal disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurogenic bowel dysfunction</span> Human disease involving inability to control defecation

Neurogenic bowel dysfunction (NBD) is the inability to control defecation due to a deterioration of or injury to the nervous system, resulting in faecal incontinence or constipation. It is common in people with spinal cord injury (SCI), multiple sclerosis (MS) or spina bifida.

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