19th Century glassmaking innovations in the United States

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Decanter circa 1820s-1830s, Bakewell, Page, & Bakewell Decanter MET DT188.jpg
Decanter circa 1820s–1830s, Bakewell, Page, & Bakewell

Very few 19th Century glassmaking innovations in the United States happened at the beginning of the century. Only ten glass manufacturers are thought to have been operating in 1800. High-quality glassware was imported from England, and glassmaking knowledge was kept secret. England controlled a key ingredient for producing high–quality glassware and kept its price high—making it difficult for American glass manufacturers to compete price-wise. European glassmakers with the knowledge to produce high–quality glassware were, in some cases, smuggled to the United States. Eventually the American glass industry grew, and the second half of the century saw numerous innovations.

Contents

The two most significant innovations of the 19th century were mechanical pressing and a new formula for high quality glass. Mechanical pressing increased productivity and allowed more of the public to afford glassware. It was developed simultaneously at several locations during the 1820s. Among those that received pressing-related patents were John P. Bakewell of Bakewell and Company; Henry Whitney and Enoch Robinson of New England Glass Company; and Phineas C. Dummer, George Dummer, and James Maxwell of the Jersey City Glass Works. A new formula for glass, developed by William Leighton Sr. at J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company, lowered costs and allowed even more people to afford glassware.

Many mechanical innovations in the last half of the century involved the procedure for melting ingredients, cooling (annealing) newly made glass, and automation. By the end of the century a new machine designed by John H. Lubbers began to make many glassblowers obsolete, and work was being conducted on a bottle-making machine by Michael J. Owens that eventually revolutionized the bottle industry. Preliminary work by Irving Wightman Colburn had started that would change the way window glass was made. Owens and Colburn worked together to finish this new window glass process during the 20th century. A new formula for ruby glass, which did not need gold as an additive, was developed by Nicholas Kopp Jr. in the 1890s around the time of the start of the American auto industry.

Two fathers

Benjamin Bakewell, the father of the American flint glass industry Benjamin Bakewell glassmaker.png
Benjamin Bakewell, the father of the American flint glass industry

Glass is made by starting with a batch of ingredients, melting it, forming the glass product, and gradually cooling it. [Note 1] In 1800, the United States is thought to have had no more than a ten operating glass factories. Most of the nation's glass products came from Europe. [9] Lead ore, known as red lead, was a key ingredient necessary to make high-quality glassware, but England controlled the world's known supply. [10] [Note 2] The United States Embargo Act of 1807, and the War of 1812, made red lead extremely difficult to acquire. After the war England kept the price of red lead high, and dumped low-priced glass products in the United States. This drove some American glass companies into bankruptcy. [10]

One of the few successful American glass companies was the New England Glass Company, which was incorporated in 1818 and led by Deming Jarves—who has been called the "father of the American glass industry." [12] Using assistance from the Harvard University library and a British engineer named James B. Barnes, Jarves developed a way to produce red lead from domestic sources of lead oxide. [13] Jarves' red lead was good enough that his New England Glass Company was exporting cut crystal glassware to Europe by 1825. [14] Jarves smuggled European glassmaking talent to America at a time when it was forbidden by European countries. [13] However, the glassmakers themselves kept their techniques and recipes secret. If a company lost a skilled glassworker, it was possible that certain types of glass could no longer be made at the glassworks. [14] Jarves began to keep records of glass recipes and procedures. This gave him more control over the intellectual rights of his company. [14] New England Glass Company was a "great innovator under the leadership of Deming Jarves" and Jarves "revolutionized the American glass industry". [15]

Benjamin Bakewell founded a glass manufacturing company in Pittsburgh in 1808. This company, which began as Bakewell & Ensell, became Pittsburgh's best known glass manufacturer. [16] It changed its name many times, but always had Bakewell as part of the name. [Note 3] Among the names used were Bakewell, Page & Bakewell; and Bakewell, Pears & Company. The Bakewell and Pears families were involved with the company for most of its existence, and Benjamin Page was an important member of the company in its early years. [16] Bakewell needed skilled glassworkers early in the company's existence, so English glass men were smuggled to Pittsburgh. [17] The company received its supply of red lead from Deming Jarves. [11] Bakewell became well known for its lead crystal glass, and also made engraved and cut glassware. Other products, such as window glass and bottles, were also made. [16] Jarves considered Benjamin Bakewell the "father of the flint-glass [crystal] business in this country". [18] [Note 4] In the 1820s and 1830s, Bakewell glassware was purchased for the White House by presidents James Monroe and Andrew Jackson. [16]

19th century innovations

The mechanical innovations, and other innovations, listed below are from an essay published in the December 1920 edition of Scientific American . The essay was titled Modern Glass-Making, and it was written by E. Ward Tillotson, assistant director of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. [20] The essay contains a list titled Some Notable Developments in the Glass Industry. [21] Some of these innovations were first developed in the United States, while others were already in operation in foreign countries. During the 19th century and earlier, European countries (and their skilled glassworkers) tried to keep glassmaking methods secret—causing some processes to need to be rediscovered in the United States. [13] The leading manufacturers (and exporters) of European glass, based on statistics from near 1880, were England, France, Belgium, Germany, and Austria–Hungry. [22] [Note 5] William Leighton Jr., chemist at J. H. Hobbs, Brockunier and Company, wrote a newspaper article in 1880 that called pressing and the new soda-lime glass formula the two great steps in American glassmaking. [25] [Note 6] Professor Warren C. Scoville of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in an essay titled Growth of the American Glass Industry to 1880, considered the five outstanding glassmaking innovations up to that time to be 1) mechanical pressing; 2) the new soda-lime (a.k.a. lime) glass formula; 3) the shift from wood to coal for fuel; 4) the beginning of plate glass manufacturing; and 5) the gas furnace. [27] [Note 7]

Mechanical Innovations

Pressed glass by New England Glass Co.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art 'Industries' Bowl LACMA 56.35.109.jpg
Pressed glass by New England Glass Co.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Siemens glassmaking advertisement 1883 Siemens Furnace ad 1883.png
Siemens glassmaking advertisement 1883
Gill Furnace advertisement 1883 Gill Furnace ad 1883.png
Gill Furnace advertisement 1883
Riverside Glass Works 1896 advertisement Riverside Glass Works ad 1896.png
Riverside Glass Works 1896 advertisement
Flat glass lehr circa 1920s Flat glass lehr from 1920s.png
Flat glass lehr circa 1920s
Drawing from Lubbers patent Lubbers Patent No. 702013 from 1902.JPG
Drawing from Lubbers patent

Other Innovations

Favrile oil lamp and shade Favrile oil lamp and shade, Tiffany Glass and Decorating Co., New York, c. 1900, blown and molded iridescent glass - Krannert Art Museum, UIUC - DSC06569.jpg
Favrile oil lamp and shade
Ruby glass pitcher Georgian Ruby Pitcher Duncan.jpg
Ruby glass pitcher

Notes

Footnotes

  1. The batch of ingredients is dominated by sand, which contains silica. [1] Other ingredients such as soda ash, potash, and lime are added. [2] The batch is placed inside a pot or tank that is heated by a furnace to roughly 3090 °F (1700 °C). [1] In the glass-making industry, the melted batch is called "metal". [3] The metal is typically shaped into the glass product (other than window glass) by either a glassblower or pressing it into a mold. [4] Window glass production during the 19th century involved blowing a long cylinder and flattening it. [5] All glass products must then be cooled gradually (annealed) after the product is shaped, or else it will become brittle and possibly break. [6] Annealing was originally conducted in the United States using a kiln that was sealed with the fresh glass inside, heated, and gradually cooled. [7] Kilns were eventually replaced by a conveyer oven called a lehr. [8]
  2. Red lead was necessary to make brilliant molten glass suitable for cutting. [11]
  3. Pittsburgh's Bakewell glass works had nine different names. From 1808 to 1809 it was named Bakewell & Ensell; and from 1809 to 1813 it was named Benjamin Bakewell & Company. From 1813 to 1827 it was named Bakewell, Page & Bakewell; and from 1827 to 1832 was named Bakewell, Page & Bakewells. From 1832 to 1836 it was named Bakewells & Anderson; and from 1836 to 1842 it was named Bakewells & Company. The Pears family became involved and the company was named Bakewell & Pears from 1842 to 1844; Bakewell, Pears & Company from 1844 to 1880; and Bakewell, Pears Company, Ltd. from 1880 to 1882. [16]
  4. Among companies with ties to Bakewell are Adams & Co.; Atterbury & Co.; Bryce Brothers; Challinor Taylor; and McCulley & Co. [19]
  5. Each European country had a specialty. England was known for its lead crystal glassware. [22] Englishman George Ravenscroft has been credited with refining the formula for crystal during the 1670s. [23] France was known for its art glass and plate glass—including stained glass windows, while Belgium made the best window glass in the world. [22] The German states were known for mirrors, low cost tableware, vases, and ruby glass. Johann Kunckel developed ruby glass in 1679. [24] The Bohemian portion of Austria–Hungry was known for its art glass, including its engraving and decoration of its glassware. [24]
  6. William Leighton Jr. succeeded his father as chemist at the Hobbs, Brockunier and Company glass factory. He was responsible for most of the colors and glass formulas used at the plant, and held patents for several glass patterns and mechanical innovations. He later was a partner in the glass manufacturer Dalzell, Gilmore & Leighton Company. [26]
  7. The use of coal for fuel in glassmaking began in the 18th century in the Philadelphia area and Pittsburgh. [28] Tillotson's list did not include the shift to coal. [21]
  8. Tillotson lists the year as 1879, which is the year the company was organized and may have begun testing. [37]
  9. Tillotson lists the year as 1882. [21]
  10. Thomas Atterbury patented a lehr for glassware other than flat glass in 1864. It was called a continuous mechanical annealing oven and had a circular design. [45] Later innovations, including work by Theodore Zeller, led to a linear design for the lehr that is still used today. [46]
  11. The "flint glass" used herein is not optical glass, but rather glass that uses lead as an important ingredient—now commonly called crystal. [49]

Citations

  1. 1 2 "How Glass is Made – What is glass made of? The wonders of glass all come down to melting sand". Corning. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
  2. Skrabec 2007, p. 25
  3. Shotwell 2002, p. 343
  4. Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 45
  5. Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 20
  6. "Corning Museum of Glass – Annealing Glass". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
  7. Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998, p. 48
  8. "Corning Museum of Glass – Lehr". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.
  9. Dyer & Gross 2001 , p. 23
  10. 1 2 Skrabec 2011 , p. 19
  11. 1 2 Knittle 1927, p. 275
  12. Skrabec 2011 , pp. 18, 20
  13. 1 2 3 Skrabec 2011 , p. 20
  14. 1 2 3 Skrabec 2011 , p. 21
  15. Skrabec 2011 , pp. 18, 21
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 144
  17. Jarves 1854 , p. 44
  18. Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 144; Jarves 1854 , p. 45; Palmer 1979 , p. 5
  19. Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998, pp. 142–143, 145, 151
  20. Tillotson 1920 , p. 351
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Tillotson 1920 , p. 354
  22. 1 2 3 Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 69
  23. MacLeod 1987, pp. 777, 802
  24. 1 2 Weeks & United States Census Office 1884, p. 70
  25. 1 2 Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 79
  26. Bredehoft & Bredehoft 1997, pp. 27–28
  27. Scoville 1944 , p. 211
  28. Palmer 1979a, p. 107
  29. Revi 1964 , p. 1; Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998 , p. 42
  30. 1 2 Shotwell 2002 , p. 444
  31. 1 2 Zerwick 1990 , p. 79
  32. "Pressed Glass: 1825–1925". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on March 23, 2024. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
  33. Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 36
  34. Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 37
  35. Dixon 1921 , pp. 92–93
  36. 1 2 Hasbrouck 1909 , p. 758
  37. Tillotson 1920, p. 354; Hasbrouck 1909, p. 758
  38. Shotwell 2002 , p. 549
  39. 1 2 3 Dixon 1921 , p. 94
  40. Dixon 1921 , p. 94; Tillotson 1920 , p. 354
  41. Dixon 1921 , pp. 94–95
  42. United StatesPatent 260,819,Philip Arbogast,"Manufacture of Glassware",issued July 11, 1882 Archived January 23, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
  43. "One Step Closer: The Iron Glassblower". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
  44. 1 2 United StatesPatent 258,156,Cleon Tondeur,"Glass–Annealing Furnace",issued May 16, 1882 Archived January 25, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
  45. Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998, pp. 46–47
  46. Madarasz, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania & Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center 1998, p. 47
  47. Rice 1915 , pp. 126–127
  48. Kapsch 1990 , p. 44
  49. Shotwell 2002, p. 184
  50. Shotwell 2002 , p. 278
  51. United StatesPatent 631,857,George A. Marsh,"Table for Holding Plate Glass",issued August 29, 1899 Archived January 27, 2024, at the Wayback Machine ; United StatesPatent 631,898,George A. Marsh,"Apparatus for Grinding, Smoothing, and Polishing Glass",issued August 29, 1899 Archived January 27, 2024, at the Wayback Machine ; United StatesPatent 631,855,George A. Marsh,"Apparatus for Holding Glass",issued August 29, 1899 Archived January 27, 2024, at the Wayback Machine ; United StatesPatent 631,856,George A. Marsh,"Glass Holding Table",issued August 29, 1899 Archived January 27, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
  52. 1 2 North & United States Census Office 1902 , p. 962
  53. 1 2 Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives 1909 , pp. 7570, 7572
  54. United StatesPatent 682,595,Michael J. Owens&Amos R. Wilson,"Machine for Fire–Finishing Glass Articles",issued September 10, 1901 Archived January 27, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
  55. 1 2 Skrabec 2007a , p. 75
  56. Skrabec 2007a , p. 85
  57. Skrabec 2007a , p. 9
  58. Skrabec 2007a , p. 84
  59. Linton 1917 , p. 8359
  60. Linton 1917 , pp. 8358, 8360
  61. United StatesPatent 702,013,John H. Lubbers,"Apparatus for Drawing Glass",issued June 10, 1902 Archived January 24, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
  62. Unlisted 1917 , p. 1
  63. Unlisted 1913 , p. 81
  64. "Domestic Plate Glass". Buffalo Courier Express (Ancestry). August 31, 1857. p. 2. The Company proposes to manufacture 2,000 square feet of 3-8 inch plate glass per day....
  65. Wilson 2001 , p. 145
  66. Wilson 2001 , p. 146
  67. Skrabec 2011 , pp. 27–28; Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 79
  68. Weeks & United States Census Office 1884 , p. 79; Dyer & Gross 2001 , pp. 30–31
  69. McKearin & McKearin 1966 , p. 395
  70. Wilson & Wahl 1894 , pp. 161–162
  71. Wilson & Wahl 1894 , pp. 164–165
  72. Shotwell 2002 , pp. 560–561
  73. "Tiffany Treasures: Favrile Glass from Special Collections". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on January 26, 2024. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  74. "Tiffany Treasures: Favrile Glass from Special Collections". Corning Museum of Glass. Archived from the original on January 26, 2024. Retrieved January 26, 2024.; "Vase - Designed by Louis C. Tiffany". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on January 26, 2024. Retrieved January 26, 2024.; "Louis Comfort Tiffany - Favrile Vase". Rhode Island School of Design Museum. Archived from the original on November 17, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  75. 1 2 Shively 1924 , p. 371
  76. Skrabec 2011 , p. 25

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References