Aggression in cattle

Last updated

Aggression in cattle is usually a result of fear, learning, and hormonal state, however, many other factors can contribute to aggressive behaviors in cattle.

Contents

Despite the fact that Bulls (uncastrated male cattle) are generally significantly more aggressive than cows, there are far more reported cases of cows attacking humans than bulls, and the majority of farm-related injuries and fatalities by cattle is caused by cows. This is most likely due to the fact that there are far more female cattle on a farm than bulls, so statistically the likelihood of injury or death from cattle is more likely to be caused by cows. [1] However, this is also exacerbated by the fact that many people are unaware of the potential for aggression in cows, especially during, and immediately after, calving (giving birth) and when cows feel threatened or are seeking to protect their young.

Temperament traits

Temperament traits are known to be traits in which explain the behavior and actions of an animal [2] [3] and can be described in the traits responsible for how easily an animal can be approached, handled, milked, or trained. Temperament can also be defined as how an animal carries out maternal or other behaviors while subjected to routine management. [4] These traits have the ability to change as the animal ages or as the environment in which the animal lives changes over time, however, it is proven that regardless of age and environmental conditions, some individuals remain more aggressive than others. [5] Aggression in cattle can arise from both genetic and environmental factors. [4]

Aggression between cows is worse than that between bulls. Bulls with horns will bunt (push or strike with the horns) in which can cause more damage overall. In humans, most aggressive behaviors of cows include kicking, crushing and/or blunting. [6]

Types of aggression

There are many types of aggression that are seen in animals, particularly cattle, including maternal, feed, comfort influencing, pain induced, and stress induced aggressiveness.

Maternal aggression

There are many components to maternal behavior that are seen in cattle, including behavior that allows proper bonding between mother and baby, nursing behavior, attentiveness and how mother responds to offspring. [7] This maternal behavior is often seen in cattle during lactation as a prey species, this triggers the maternal instinct to protect their young from any threat and may use violent aggressive behaviors as a defense mechanism. [8] [9] [10] During lactation in prey species, including cattle, a reduction in fear responsiveness of the dam to novel and potentially dangerous situations facilitates the expression of defensive aggression in protection of the young. It has also been proven however that aggression is not only performed in the protection of the offspring, but it can be directed to the offspring, in which could be directly related to fear. [7]

Feed aggression

This is commonly seen in cattle due to high stocking densities which could potentially decrease the amount of space each cow has, as well as limit their ability to have access to feed, even impacting the ruminal environment. [11] [12] [13] It is proven that supplying feed and water to cattle that are housed together may be heavily associated with feed aggression and aggressive actions towards others cows [14] [15] and within loose-housed cattle, feeding places are noted to have the highest amount of aggressive behaviors. [16]

Comfort induced aggression

These are aggressive behaviors associated with lack of comfort, inadequate lying space or time in which the physical environment fails to provide the animal. Cow comfort plays an important role in the well being as well as maximizing production as an industry. Within many intensive production systems, it is very common to see limited space for resting, which can be associated with negative behaviors as not providing the appropriate space for the animal reduces resting and lying behavior, increasing irritability and the potential to act in aggressive behaviors. Although not all production systems provide limited space and time for lying, uncomfortable stalls are also known to be a major problem when it comes to lying behavior in cattle. Decreasing the quality of resting area for cows will decrease resting time, and increase the likelihood of stress, abnormal and aggressive behaviors [17] as the deprivation of lying/resting behaviors is proven to affect responses within the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis [18] [19] which is associated with chronic stress in the animal. [20] Not only lying time and space act as important regulators of comfort induced aggression, but other environmental factors may play a role in the comfort of an animal. Temperature has been shown to be a factor that influences the behavioral interactions between cattle, and it has been found that, by providing cows with the proper cooling environment or as heat could decrease aggressive interactions as cattle will have been shown to engage in aggressive behavior in order to gain access to a shaded and cattle with access to more shade are known to show reduced physiological and behavioral responses to heat. [21]

Stress induced aggression

These are behaviors caused by some sort of stressor that can lead to aggressive advances towards themselves or other individuals.

A stressor is an object or event that can cause a real or perceived threat internally or externally to an animal. [22] [23] Stressors are common in farm animals such as dairy cows as they live in a complex environment where there are many stressors including novel objects (new objects such as handlers, food, or group mates), social stimuli (different environments, new individuals), or restraint (physical restraint, moved to cubicles, transported). [24]

Dairy cows specifically have been known to be very sensitive to new, unfamiliar events or objects such as being around an unfamiliar person, [25] [26] or presented with a novel food item. [27] [28] [29]

Stress has extreme negative impacts on growth and reproduction in cattle, as the pituitary-adrenal system is very sensitive to different environmental stressors such as inadequate space, feed, poor quality housing, new objects or individuals, or new living/housing system [30]

Pain induced aggression

Pain is defined as an effective state and can only be truly measured indirectly in both humans and animals, that may present some challenges in decision making regarding pain management.

Many things can result in pain including dehorning, tail docking, handling, castrating, mastitis, lameness, confinement, transportation [31]

Lameness is a common issue seen in cattle, and may occur in facilities with poor management and housing systems, and inadequate handling skills. It is because of this issue that many cows find themselves spending a lot of time lying down, instead of engaging in both aggressive (head butting, vocalizing, pushing) and non aggressive behaviors (licking, walking) due to the pain.

Preventions

Techniques such as low stress handling (LSH) can be used as it provides silence, adequate restraint methods can help minimize stress levels in the animals. Flight zones should be considered when handling or moving cattle, as they have a blind spot and may get spooked easily if unaware if there is an individual around. Providing environments for cows in which minimize any environmental stressor can not only improve the wellbeing and welfare of the animal, but can also reduce aggressive behaviors. [30]

Regular examinations (physical and physiological) should be done to determine the condition of the cow, which could show signs of cuts, or lesions, as well as the secretion or hormones inside the body such as cortisol. Cortisol can be measured through blood sampling, urine, saliva or heart rate to indicate stress level of animal. [32]

Assessing for lameness, as well as giving proper treatment depending on severity/location can include antibiotics, Using proper treatment/prevention for pain when lameness is examined, as well as procedures such as tail docking, dehorning, castrating, mastitis lameness etc. [33]

The primary treatment in lame cows is corrective hoof pairing, which provides draining of abscesses, fixing any structural issue with the hoof, and reducing weight baring problems, however if lesions are seen in cattle, antibiotics or other measures may have to be taken to reduce further infection/irritation. [33]

Setting breeding goals can be a potential way to select for desired temperamental traits, further decreasing the risk of raising aggressive cattle. Before this method of selection can be entirely accurate and safe, however, some tests should be done, such as behavior and temperament tests. [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aggression</span> Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness

Aggression is hostile and antagonistic behavior, often with the intent to cause harm, although it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</span> Set of physiological feedback interactions

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands. These organs and their interactions constitute the HPA axis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fight-or-flight response</span> Physiological reaction to a perceived threat or harmful event

The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-or-freeze is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress. The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy cattle</span> Cattle bred to produce milk

Dairy cattle are cattle bred for the ability to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cattle generally are of the species Bos taurus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominance hierarchy</span> Type of social hierarchy

In biology, a dominance hierarchy is a type of social hierarchy that arises when members of animal social groups interact, creating a ranking system. A dominant higher-ranking individual is sometimes called an alpha, and a submissive lower-ranking individual is called a beta. Different types of interactions can result in dominance depending on the species, including ritualized displays of aggression or direct physical violence. In social living groups, members are likely to compete for access to limited resources and mating opportunities. Rather than fighting each time they meet, individuals of the same sex establish a relative rank, with higher-ranking individuals often gaining more access to resources and mates. Based on repetitive interactions, a social order is created that is subject to change each time a dominant animal is challenged by a subordinate one.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog training</span> Practice of teaching behaviors to dogs

Dog training is a kind of animal training, the application of behavior analysis which uses the environmental events of antecedents and consequences to modify the dog behavior, either for it to assist in specific activities or undertake particular tasks, or for it to participate effectively in contemporary domestic life. While training dogs for specific roles dates back to Roman times at least, the training of dogs to be compatible household pets developed with suburbanization in the 1950s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog aggression</span> Behavior in dogs

Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social grooming</span> Behavior in social animals

Social grooming is a behavior in which social animals, including humans, clean or maintain one another's body or appearance. A related term, allogrooming, indicates social grooming between members of the same species. Grooming is a major social activity, and a means by which animals who live in close proximity may bond and reinforce social structures, family links, and build companionships. Social grooming is also used as a means of conflict resolution, maternal behavior and reconciliation in some species. Mutual grooming typically describes the act of grooming between two individuals, often as a part of social grooming, pair bonding, or a precoital activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cribbing (horse)</span> Stable vice in horses

Cribbing is a form of stereotypy (equine oral stereotypic behaviour), otherwise known as wind sucking or crib-biting. Cribbing is considered to be an abnormal, compulsive behavior seen in some horses, and is often labelled a stable vice. The major factors that cause cribbing include stress, stable management, genetic and gastrointestinal irritability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horse behavior</span>

Horse behavior is best understood from the view that horses are prey animals with a well-developed fight-or-flight response. Their first reaction to a threat is often to flee, although sometimes they stand their ground and defend themselves or their offspring in cases where flight is untenable, such as when a foal would be threatened.

Growling is a low, guttural vocalization produced by animals as an aggressive warning but can also be found in other contexts such as playful behaviors or mating. Different animals will use growling in specific contexts as a form of communication. In humans, low or dull rumbling noises may also be emitted when they are discontent with something or they are angry, although this human sound is often termed "groaning".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog behavior</span> Internally coordinated responses of dogs to internal and external stimuli

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Savaging</span> In ethology, aggressive behaviour displayed by the mother towards the offspring

Savaging is a term used in the study of ethology that refers to aggressive behaviour displayed by the mother towards the offspring. Aggressive behaviour includes being rough with, injuring, biting, attacking, crushing and killing of the offspring. While savaging behaviour has been seen in multiple species, it is predominantly demonstrated in domestic pigs. As the definition of savaging is so broad, research on the prevalence of savaging behaviour varies with reports of little savaging of offspring to savaging of offspring up to the 20th percentile. Prevalence of aggressive, non-fatal savaging is greater in gilts, or females who have not yet previously farrowed, as piglet-focused aggression is more frequent in young animals than sows, adult females who have previously given birth. Occurrence of savaging demonstrated by sows is greater if the sow has previously savaged her offspring either as a gilt or sow. Savaging behaviour usually occurs during the first two days after parturition. Prevalence of savaging is similar among first and second farrowing cycles. Savaging behaviour has a significant impact on both agricultural economy and animal welfare which is why it is currently a subject of interest in the pig industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shock collar</span> Dog training device using electrical pain to change behavior

A shock collar or remote training collar, also known as an e-collar, Ecollar, or electronic collar) is a type of training collar that utilizes electrical shocks to induce pain to the neck of a dog or other parts of its body, depending on the desired outcome. These collars incorporate a radio-controlled electronic device and are worn around the dog's neck. Many European countries view shock collars as animal cruelty and have banned their use. The mechanism behind shock collars involve inflicting varying levels and duration of pain, which generates fear and serves as a deterrent for undesirable behaviors. Some models of shock collar models offer additional features such as a tone or vibrational setting that can be used as an alternative or in combination with the shock. Certain advanced collars include Internet mapping capabilities and GPS functionality to track the dog's location or notify the owner about its whereabouts.

Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pain in animals</span> Overview about pain in animals

Pain negatively affects the health and welfare of animals. "Pain" is defined by the International Association for the Study of Pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage." Only the animal experiencing the pain can know the pain's quality and intensity, and the degree of suffering. It is harder, if even possible, for an observer to know whether an emotional experience has occurred, especially if the sufferer cannot communicate. Therefore, this concept is often excluded in definitions of pain in animals, such as that provided by Zimmerman: "an aversive sensory experience caused by actual or potential injury that elicits protective motor and vegetative reactions, results in learned avoidance and may modify species-specific behaviour, including social behaviour." Nonhuman animals cannot report their feelings to language-using humans in the same manner as human communication, but observation of their behaviour provides a reasonable indication as to the extent of their pain. Just as with doctors and medics who sometimes share no common language with their patients, the indicators of pain can still be understood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cattle</span> Large, domesticated, cloven-hooved herbivores

Cattle are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are referred to as cows and mature male cattle are referred to as bulls. Colloquially, young female cattle (heifers), young male cattle (bullocks), and castrated male cattle (steers) are also referred to as "cows".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stereotypy (non-human)</span> Non-pathological pattern of animal behavior which displays very low variability

In animal behaviour, stereotypy, stereotypic or stereotyped behaviour has several meanings, leading to ambiguity in the scientific literature. A stereotypy is a term for a group of phenotypic behaviours that are repetitive, morphologically identical and which possess no obvious goal or function. These behaviours have been defined as 'abnormal', as they exhibit themselves solely in animals subjected to barren environments, scheduled or restricted feedings, social deprivation and other cases of frustration, but do not arise in 'normal' animals in their natural environments. These behaviours may be maladaptive, involving self-injury or reduced reproductive success, and in laboratory animals can confound behavioural research. Stereotypical behaviours are thought to be caused ultimately by artificial environments that do not allow animals to satisfy their normal behavioural needs. Rather than refer to the behaviour as abnormal, it has been suggested that it be described as "behaviour indicative of an abnormal environment".

The challenge hypothesis outlines the dynamic relationship between testosterone and aggression in mating contexts. It proposes that testosterone promotes aggression when it would be beneficial for reproduction, such as mate guarding, or strategies designed to prevent the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The positive correlation between reproductive aggression and testosterone levels is seen to be strongest during times of social instability. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels are a function of mating system, paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders.

References

  1. ↑ https://www.thejournal.ie/cows-farmers-injury-3793797-Jan2018/
  2. ↑ Fordyce, G; Dodt, R.M; Wythes, J.R (1988). "Cattle temperaments in extensive beef herds in northern Queensland. 1. Factors affecting temperament". Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 28 (6): 683–687. doi:10.1071/ea9880683.
  3. ↑ Fordyce, G; Goddard, M.E; Tyler, R.; Williams, G; Toleman, M.A (1985). "Temperament and bruising of Bos indicus cross cattle". Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 25 (2): 283–288. doi:10.1071/ea9850283.
  4. 1 2 Morris, C.A; Cullen, N.G; Kilgour, R; Bremner, K.J (1994). "Some genetic factors affecting temperament in Bos taurus cattle". New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research. 37 (2): 167–175. doi:10.1080/00288233.1994.9513054.
  5. ↑ D’Eath, R.B (2004). "Consistency of aggressive temperament in domestic pigs: the effects of social experience and social disruption". Aggressive Behavior. 30 (5): 435–448. doi:10.1002/ab.20077.
  6. ↑ Landsberg, G.M (2018). "Behavioral Problems of Cattle". Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
  7. 1 2 Grandinson, K (2005). "Genetic background of maternal behaviour and its relation to offspring survival". Livestock Production Science. 93: 43–50. doi:10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.11.005.
  8. ↑ Hård, E; Hansen, S (1985). "Reduced fearfulness in the lactating rat". Physiol. Behav. 35 (4): 641–643. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(85)90155-6. PMID   4070441. S2CID   19056369.
  9. ↑ Fleming, A.S; Luebke, C (1981). "Timidity prevents the virgin female rat from being a good mother: emotionality differences between nulliparous and parturient females". Physiol. Behav. 27 (5): 863–868. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(81)90054-8. PMID   7323193. S2CID   42839515.
  10. ↑ Ferreira, A; Hansen, S; Nielsen, M; Archer, T; Minor, B.G (1989). "Behavior of mother rats in conflict tests sensitive to anxiety agents". Behav. Neurosci. 103 (1): 193–201. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.103.1.193. PMID   2564276.
  11. ↑ Clemmons, BA; Campbell, MA; Schneider, LG; Grant, RJ; Dann, HM; Krawczel, PD; Myer, PR (2020). "Effect of stocking density and effective fiber on the ruminal bacterial communities in lactating Holstein cows". PeerJ. 8 (e9079): e9079. doi: 10.7717/peerj.9079 . PMC   7195836 . PMID   32391208.
  12. ↑ Keeling, L.J; Duncan, I.J.H (1989). "Inter-individual distances and orientation in laying hens housed in groups of three in two different-sized enclosures". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 24 (4): 325–342. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(89)90060-9.
  13. ↑ Kondo, S.J; Sekine, J; Okubo, M; Asahida, Y (1989). "The effect of group size and space allowance on the agonistic spacing behaviour of cattle". Appl. Animal Behav. Sci. 24: 127–135. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(89)90040-3.
  14. ↑ Jezierski, T.A; Podłużny, M (1984). "A quantitative analysis of social behaviour of different crossbreds of dairy cattle kept in loose housing and its relationship to productivity". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 13 (1–2): 31–40. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(84)90049-2.
  15. ↑ Phillips, C.J; Rind, M.I (2001). "The effects of frequency of feeding a total mixed ration on the production and behavior of dairy cows". J. Dairy Sci. 84 (9): 1979–1987. doi: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(01)74641-3 . PMID   11573777.
  16. ↑ Miller, K; Woodgush, D.G.M (1991). "Some effects of housing on the social behavior of dairy cows". Animal Production. 53 (3): 271–278. doi:10.1017/s0003356100020262.
  17. ↑ Leonard, F.C; O’Connell, J; O’Farrell, K (1994). "Effect of different housing conditions on behaviour and foot lesions in Friesian heifers". Vet. Rec. 134 (19): 490–494. doi:10.1136/vr.134.19.490. PMID   8073591. S2CID   7059613.
  18. ↑ Munksgaard, L; Simonsen, H.B (1996). "Behavioral and pituitary adrenal-axis responses of dairy cows to social isolation and deprivation of lying down". J. Anim. Sci. 74 (4): 769–778. doi:10.2527/1996.744769x. PMID   8727997.
  19. ↑ Ruckebusch, Y (1974). "Feeding and sleep patterns of cows prior to and post parturition". Applied Animal Ethology. 1 (3): 283–292. doi:10.1016/0304-3762(75)90021-8.
  20. ↑ Ladewig, J; Smidt, D (1989). "Behavior, episodic secretion of cortisol, and adrenocortical reactivity in bulls subjected to tethering". Horm. Behav. 23 (3): 344–360. doi:10.1016/0018-506x(89)90048-2. PMID   2793077. S2CID   44509663.
  21. ↑ Schütz, K.E; Rogers, A.R; Poulouin, Y.A; Cox, N.R; Tucker, C.B (2010). "The amount of shade influences the behavior and physiology of dairy cattle". J. Dairy Sci. 93 (1): 125–133. doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-2416 . PMID   20059911.
  22. ↑ Yamada, K; Nabeshima, T (1995). "Stress-induced behavioral responses and multiple opioid systems in the brain". Behav. Brain Res. 67 (2): 133–145. doi:10.1016/0166-4328(94)00150-e. PMID   7779288. S2CID   13401761.
  23. ↑ Ramos, A; Mormède, P (1998). "Stress and emotionality: a multidimensional and genetic approach". Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 22 (1): 33–57. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(97)00001-8. PMID   9491939. S2CID   14201883.
  24. ↑ Herskin, M.S; Munksgaard, L; Ladewig, J (2004). "Effects of acute stressors on nociception, adrenocortical responses and behavior of dairy cows". Physiology and Behavior. 83 (3): 411–420. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.027. PMID   15581663. S2CID   25795711.
  25. ↑ Hemsworth, P.H; Price, E.O; Borgwardt, R (1996). "Behavioral responses of domestic pigs and cattle to humans and novel stimuli". Appl. Animal Behav. Sci. 50: 43–56. doi:10.1016/0168-1591(96)01067-2.
  26. ↑ Munksgaard, L; Pasillé, A.M; Rushen, J; Herskin, M.S; Kristensen, A.M (2001). "Dairy cow's fear of people, social learning, and milk yield and behaviour at milking". Appl. Animal Behav. Sci. 73 (1): 15–26. doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(01)00119-8. PMID   11356287.
  27. ↑ Herskin, M.S; Munksgaard, L (2000). "Behavioral reactivity of cattle toward novel food: effects of testing time and food type of neighbors". J. Anim. Sci. 78 (9): 2323–2328. doi:10.2527/2000.7892323x. PMID   10985406.
  28. ↑ Herskin, M.S; Munksgaard, L; Kristensen, A.M (2003). "Testing responses to novelty in cattle: behavioral and physiological responses to novel food". Animal Sci. 76 (2): 327–340. doi:10.1017/s1357729800053571.
  29. ↑ Herskin, M.S; Munksgaard, L; Kristensen, A.M (2003). "Behavioral and adrenocortical responses of dairy cows toward novel food: effects of food deprivation, milking frequency and energy density in the daily ration". Appl. Animal Behav. Sci. 82 (4): 251–265. doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(03)00087-x.
  30. 1 2 Tirloni, R.R; Rocha, F.A; Lourenço, F.J; Martins, L.R (2013). "Influence of low-stress handling on reactivity score and pregnancy rate during fixed-time artificial insemination in Nellore cows". Breeding and Reproduction. 42.
  31. ↑ Millman, S.T (2013). "Behavioral Responses of Cattle to Pain and Implications for Diagnosis, Management, and Animal Welfare". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice. 29 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1016/j.cvfa.2012.11.007. PMID   23438399.
  32. ↑ Schwinn, A.C; Knight, C.H; Bruckmaier, R.M; Gross, J.J (2016). "Suitability of saliva cortisol as a biomarker for hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activation assessment,effects of feeding actions, and immunostimulatory challenges in dairy cows". J. Anim. Sci. 94 (6): 2357–2365. doi:10.2527/jas.2015-0260. PMID   27285912.
  33. 1 2 Laven, R.A; Lawrence, K.E; Weston, J.F; Dowson, K.R; Stafford, K.J (2008). "Assessment of the duration of the pain response associated with lameness in dairy cows, and the influence of treatment". New Zealand Veterinary Journal. 56 (5): 210–217. doi:10.1080/00480169.2008.36835. PMID   18836500. S2CID   5200266.
  34. ↑ Gibbons, J.M; Lawrence, A.B; Haskell, M.J (2009). "Consistency of aggressive feeding behaviour in dairy cows". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 121: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2009.08.002.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.