In electronics, an analog multiplier is a device that takes two analog signals and produces an output which is their product. Such circuits can be used to implement related functions such as squares (apply same signal to both inputs), and square roots.
An electronic analog multiplier can be called by several names, depending on the function it is used to serve (see analog multiplier applications).
If one input of an analog multiplier is held at a steady-state voltage, a signal at the second input will be scaled in proportion to the level on the fixed input. In this case, the analog multiplier may be considered to be a voltage controlled amplifier. Obvious applications would be for electronic volume control and automatic gain control (AGC). Although analog multipliers are often used for such applications, voltage-controlled amplifiers are not necessarily true analog multipliers. For example, an integrated circuit designed to be used as a volume control may have a signal input designed for 1 Vp-p, and a control input designed for 0-5 V dc; that is, the two inputs are not symmetrical and the control input will have a limited bandwidth.
By contrast, in what is generally considered to be a true analog multiplier, the two signal inputs have identical characteristics. Applications specific to a true analog multiplier are those where both inputs are signals, for example in a frequency mixer or an analog circuit to implement a discrete Fourier transform. Due to the precision required for the device to be accurate and linear over the input range a true analog multiplier is generally a much more expensive part than a voltage-controlled amplifier.
A four-quadrant multiplier is one where inputs and outputs may swing positive and negative. Many multipliers only work in 2 quadrants (one input may only have one polarity), or single quadrant (inputs and outputs have only one polarity, usually all positive).
Analog multiplication can be accomplished by using the Hall Effect.
The Gilbert cell is a circuit whose output current is a 4 quadrant multiplication of its two differential inputs.
Integrated circuits analog multipliers are incorporated into many applications, such as a true RMS converter, but a number of general purpose analog multiplier building blocks are available such as the Linear Four Quadrant Multiplier. [1] [2] [3] General-purpose devices will usually include attenuators or amplifiers on the inputs or outputs in order to allow the signal to be scaled within the voltage limits of the circuit.
Although analog multiplier circuits are very similar to operational amplifiers, they are far more susceptible to noise and offset voltage-related problems as these errors may become multiplied. When dealing with high-frequency signals, phase-related problems may be quite complex. For this reason, manufacturing wide-range general-purpose analog multipliers is far more difficult than ordinary operational amplifiers, and such devices are typically produced using specialist technologies and laser trimming, as are those used for high-performance amplifiers such as instrumentation amplifiers. This means they have a relatively high cost and so they are generally used only for circuits where they are indispensable.
Some commonly available Analog Multiplier ICs in the market are MPY634 from Texas Instruments, AD534, AD632 and AD734 from Analog Devices, HA-2556 from Intersil and many more from other IC manufacturers.
In most cases, the functions performed by an analog multiplier may be performed better and at lower cost using digital signal processing techniques. At low frequencies, a digital solution is cheaper and more effective and allows the circuit function to be modified in firmware. As frequencies rise, the cost of implementing digital solutions increases much more steeply than for analog solutions. As digital technology advances, the use of analog multipliers tends to be ever more marginalized towards higher-frequency circuits or very specialized applications.
In addition, most signals are now destined to become digitized sooner or later in the signal path, and if at all possible the functions that would require a multiplier tend to be moved to the digital side. For example, in early digital multimeters, true RMS functions were provided by external analog multiplier circuits. Nowadays (with the exception of high-frequency measurements) the tendency is to increase the sampling rate of the ADC in order to digitize the input signal allowing RMS and a whole range of other functions to be carried out by a digital processor. However, blindly digitizing the signal as early in the signal path as possible costs unreasonable amounts of power due to the need for high-speed ADCs. A much more efficient solution involves analog preprocessing to condition the signal and reduce its bandwidth so that energy is spent to digitize only the bandwidth that contains useful information.
In addition, digitally controlled resistors allow microcontrollers to implement many functions such as tone control and AGC without having to process the digitized signal directly.
An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the continuously variable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by discrete values of both time and amplitude.
An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal. It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.
An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op amp produces an output potential that is typically 100,000 times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to perform mathematical operations in linear, non-linear, and frequency-dependent circuits.
In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter is a system that converts an analog signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera, into a digital signal. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic device that converts an analog input voltage or current to a digital number representing the magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically the digital output is a two's complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.
A phase-locked loop or phase lock loop (PLL) is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal. There are several different types; the simplest is an electronic circuit consisting of a variable frequency oscillator and a phase detector in a feedback loop. The oscillator generates a periodic signal, and the phase detector compares the phase of that signal with the phase of the input periodic signal, adjusting the oscillator to keep the phases matched.
In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter is a system that converts a digital signal into an analog signal. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse function.
Modular synthesizers are synthesizers composed of separate modules for different functions. The modules can be connected together by the user to create a patch. The outputs from the modules may include audio signals, analog control voltages, or digital signals for logic or timing conditions. Typical modules are voltage-controlled oscillators, voltage-controlled filters, voltage-controlled amplifiers and envelope generators.
A phase detector or phase comparator is a frequency mixer, analog multiplier or logic circuit that generates a signal which represents the difference in phase between two signal inputs.
An integrator in measurement and control applications is an element whose output signal is the time integral of its input signal. It accumulates the input quantity over a defined time to produce a representative output.
In electronics, a frequency multiplier is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal and that output frequency is a harmonic (multiple) of its input frequency. Frequency multipliers consist of a nonlinear circuit that distorts the input signal and consequently generates harmonics of the input signal. A subsequent bandpass filter selects the desired harmonic frequency and removes the unwanted fundamental and other harmonics from the output.
A television transmitter is a transmitter that is used for terrestrial (over-the-air) television broadcasting. It is an electronic device that radiates radio waves that carry a video signal representing moving images, along with a synchronized audio channel, which is received by television receivers belonging to a public audience, which display the image on a screen. A television transmitter, together with the broadcast studio which originates the content, is called a television station. Television transmitters must be licensed by governments, and are restricted to a certain frequency channel and power level. They transmit on frequency channels in the VHF and UHF bands. Since radio waves of these frequencies travel by line of sight, they are limited by the horizon to reception distances of 40–60 miles depending on the height of transmitter station.
A class-D amplifier or switching amplifier is an electronic amplifier in which the amplifying devices operate as electronic switches, and not as linear gain devices as in other amplifiers. They operate by rapidly switching back and forth between the supply rails, being fed by a modulator using pulse width, pulse density, or related techniques to encode the audio input into a pulse train. The audio escapes through a simple low-pass filter into the loudspeaker. The high-frequency pulses are blocked. Since the pairs of output transistors are never conducting at the same time, there is no other path for current flow apart from the low-pass filter/loudspeaker. For this reason, efficiency can exceed 90%.
The cascode is a two-stage amplifier that consists of a common-emitter stage feeding into a common-base stage.
For the measurement of an alternating current the signal is often converted into a direct current of equivalent value, the root mean square (RMS). Simple instrumentation and signal converters carry out this conversion by filtering the signal into an average rectified value and applying a correction factor. The value of the correction factor applied is only correct if the input signal is sinusoidal.
A radio transmitter or just transmitter is an electronic device which produces radio waves with an antenna. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies between about 30 Hz and 300 GHz. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. Transmitters are necessary parts of all systems that use radio: radio and television broadcasting, cell phones, wireless networks, radar, two way radios like walkie talkies, radio navigation systems like GPS, remote entry systems, among numerous other uses.
A linear circuit is an electronic circuit which obeys the superposition principle. This means that the output of the circuit F(x) when a linear combination of signals ax1(t) + bx2(t) is applied to it is equal to the linear combination of the outputs due to the signals x1(t) and x2(t) applied separately:
A fully differential amplifier (FDA) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and differential outputs. In its ordinary usage, the output of the FDA is controlled by two feedback paths which, because of the amplifier's high gain, almost completely determine the output voltage for any given input.
In electronics, the Gilbert cell is a type of mixer. It produces output signals that are proportional to the product of two input signals. Such circuits are widely used for frequency conversion in radio systems. The advantage of this circuit is the output current is an accurate multiplication of the (differential) base currents of both inputs. As a mixer, its balanced operation cancels out many unwanted mixing products, resulting in a "cleaner" output.
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope or o-scope, CRO, or DSO, is a type of electronic test instrument that graphically displays varying signal voltages, usually as a calibrated two-dimensional plot of one or more signals as a function of time. The displayed waveform can then be analyzed for properties such as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion, and others. Originally, calculation of these values required manually measuring the waveform against the scales built into the screen of the instrument. Modern digital instruments may calculate and display these properties directly.
In electronics, power amplifier classes are letter symbols applied to different power amplifier types. The class gives a broad indication of an amplifier's characteristics and performance. The classes are related to the time period that the active amplifier device is passing current, expressed as a fraction of the period of a signal waveform applied to the input. A class A amplifier is conducting through all the period of the signal; Class B only for one-half the input period, class C for much less than half the input period. A Class D amplifier operates its output device in a switching manner; the fraction of the time that the device is conducting is adjusted so a pulse width modulation output is obtained from the stage.
