Anti-Western sentiment in China

Last updated

Anti-Western sentiment has been increasing in China since the early 1990s, particularly amongst Chinese young adults. [1] Notable incidents which have resulted in a significant anti-Western backlash have included the 1999 NATO bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, [2] the 2008 demonstrations during the Olympic torch relay [3] and alleged Western media bias, [4] especially in relation to the March 2008 Tibet riots. [5]

Contents

While available public opinion polls show that the Chinese hold generally favorable views towards the United States, [6] there remains suspicion over the West's motives towards China [6] stemming largely from historical experiences and specifically the 'century of humiliation'. [7] Some allege that these suspicions have been increased by the Chinese Communist Party's Patriotic Education Campaign. [8] The reliability of public opinion polls of the Chinese population has also been questioned due to the 'political culture' in China, which may lead to respondents giving socially acceptable answers. [9] [10]

Background

Qing dynasty

Foreigners shown as pig and goat and being slaughtered by Manchu officials, 1861. 1900 killing of foreigners.jpg
Foreigners shown as pig and goat and being slaughtered by Manchu officials, 1861.

Anti-Western sentiment manifested itself in the First and Second Opium Wars as well as the Boxer Rebellion when the Righteous Harmony Society attacked westerners, missionaries and converted Chinese Christians. The Qing dynasty was divided between anti-Westerners, moderates and reformists. A Manchu prince, Zaiyi, and a Chinese general Dong Fuxiang who led 10,000 Muslim Kansu Braves attacked foreigners and defeated them at the Battle of Langfang during the rebellion. [11]

Muslims

Hatred of foreigners from high ranking Chinese Muslim officers stemmed from the way foreigners handled Chinese affairs, rather than for religious reasons, the same reason other non-Muslim Chinese hated foreigners. Promotion and wealth were other motives among Chinese Muslim military officers for anti foreignism. [12]

Kuomintang anti-Westernism

Some members of the Kuomintang party held anti-Western sentiments. Kuomintang Muslim General Bai Chongxi led a wave of anti foreignism in Guangxi, attacking American, European, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. Westerners fled from the province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents. Westerners were attacked in the streets, with many of them fleeing to their respective consulates. [13] The three goals of his movement were anti-foreignism, anti-imperialism, and anti-religion. [14]

As a Kuomintang member, Bai and the other Guangxi clique members allowed the Communists to continue attacking foreigners and smash idols, since they shared the goal of expelling the foreign powers from China, but they stopped Communists from initiating social change. [15]

General Bai also wanted to aggressively expel foreign powers from other areas of China. Bai gave a public speech in which he claimed that the ethnic minorities of China were suffering under "foreign oppression". Bai called upon the Chinese government and the people of China to assist them in expelling the foreigners from those lands. He personally wanted to lead an expedition to seize back Xinjiang to bring it under Chinese control, in the style that Zuo Zongtang led during the Dungan revolt. It is important to note that Bai Chongxi was a Hui himself. [16]

The Blue Shirts Society, a fascist paramilitary organization within the Kuomintang modeled after Mussolini's blackshirts, was anti foreign and anti communist, and stated that its agenda was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) Imperialists from China, crush communism, and eliminate feudalism. [17] In addition to being anti Communist, some Kuomintang members, like Chiang Kaishek's right-hand man Dai Li were anti-American, and they wanted to expel American influence. [18]

History

The causes of anti-Western sentiment in China include the collective memory of the period of Chinese history beginning with the two Opium Wars between 1839–1860 and ending with the expulsion of the Japanese after the Second World War which is known to the Chinese as the century of humiliation [19] [20] when China was sacked by a western coalition. Wang Zheng wrote that it was "attacked, bullied, and torn asunder by imperialists". [21] Kenneth Lieberthal, a political science professor at the University of Michigan, has argued that the demonstrations in Western cities during the Olympic torch relay had "deep historical resonance" amongst Chinese, who suspect that after China's recovery from its fall in international stature from 150 years ago, "the West is trying to humiliate them again". [7] Supporting this view, a 2007 survey found that 45% of the Chinese general public believed that the U.S. was "trying to prevent China from becoming a great power" compared to 32% who believed that the U.S. accepted "China's status as a rising power", 23% were "not sure". [6] Although this sentiment has been partially assuaged by the return to China of Hong Kong and of Macau, the unresolved political status of Taiwan remains for some a reminder of China's weakness and division. [21]

James Kelly, former US assistant secretary for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, has noted that nationalistic sentiments and anger over the torch protests was more concentrated amongst Chinese under the age of 30. [1] Suisheng Zhao [8] and Kenneth B. Pyle [22] argue that a shift in Chinese education policy that these young adults experienced is partly responsible for their increased nationalism. Zheng Wang argues that by the 1990s the international situation had reduced the appeal of Communism as a legitimizing ideology for China's rulers. As a result, the leadership reversed many of the Chinese Communist Party's changes to Chinese historiography from 1949 that interpreted Chinese history as a history of class struggle. Announced in 1991 and fully functioning by 1994, this "Patriotic Education Campaign" reinterpreted history in national terms, rehabilitating figures like General Tso who suppressed a peasant rebellion but stemmed a Russian invasion of Xinjiang, and acknowledging the role of Chinese nationalist (rather than just communist) fighters in the Second Sino-Japanese War. Students find personal resonance more in such narratives than in previous classes about Marxist doctrine because they hear about the atrocities against China not just from history textbooks but from their parents and grandparents. [21]

From 1999

1999 NATO bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade

On 7 May 1999, during Operation Allied Force, NATO aircraft bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, killing three Chinese citizens. The US claimed that the bombing was an accident caused by the use of outdated maps but few Chinese accepted this explanation. [2] The incident caused widespread anger and following the attack Chinese officials described the bombing as a "barbarian act" [23] and a "war crime" [24] while Chinese students in Europe and America demonstrated against 'NATO fascism'. [2]

In China, thousands were involved in protest marches in Beijing and other provincial capitals, some protesters threw gas bombs and rocks at the diplomatic missions of the United States and other NATO countries [25] while in Chengdu the American Consul's residence was firebombed. [2]

2008 Beijing Olympics torch relay protests

Pro-China Olympic rally in Perth, Australia, 2008 Seeing Red.jpg
Pro-China Olympic rally in Perth, Australia, 2008

Prior to the 2008 Summer Olympic Games to be held in Beijing, the international leg of the Olympic torch relay was subject to widespread demonstrations primarily over "China's human rights record and Tibetan independence." [26] In London, thirty-seven arrests were made when protestors clashed with police as the torch made its way through the city [26] while in Paris the relay was cut short and the torch transported by bus after protestors disrupted the procession. [27]

Protests also took place in Athens, [28] Istanbul, [29] Buenos Aires, [30] Bangkok, [31] Canberra, [32] Nagano, [33] and Seoul. [34] In response, Chinese government officials condemned the protests [35] and overseas Chinese organised 'pro-China' counter-demonstrations at torch processions, [36] joined by counter-protests in many Chinese cities. [3]

Despite the protests being aimed at specific issues raised through western media, Chinese state media sources, such as CCTV, [37] referred to the protestors as being 'anti-Chinese'. In one instance, Chinese state-run news source China Daily reported that "[a]ll the recent protests against the 2008 Olympic torch relay are not against Chinese government, as some protesters repeated. They are against all of the ordinary Chinese people living everywhere in the world". [38]

Chinese activists organised protests outside Carrefour stores in at least 10 Chinese cities [39] and called on shoppers to boycott the French retailer following protests in Paris. Messages distributed via the internet and mobile phones had accused the company of supporting the Dalai Lama, [40] a claim denied by Carrefour CEO Jose-Luis Duran. [41]

Media bias

Chinese netizens in both China and overseas have accused Western media sources of giving dishonest reports about riots in Tibet in March 2008. An article by the state-run China Daily reports that several Chinese activists accused, with substantiation, several Western media sources of misreporting and distorting the incident to tarnish China's image. [42] Chinese sources opined on the matter, arguing that Western media reports of the Tibet violence had displayed "ignorance and prejudice", [5] that the reporting of China more generally was "with few exceptions, only stories about censorship, spoiled food products, human rights issues, dangerous toys and the like... are published", [4] and "stoking the young people's repulsion to the West and in turn aroused the patriotic passion of the young people". [43] Several websites [ quantify ] were created to challenge the Western media's reporting of China, including anti-cnn.com, [44] whose founder Rao Jin [43] described Western media reporting as "white supremacy". [45]

In addition, the Chinese government has weighed in on the issue of media bias. Fu Ying, the Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom wrote that the Western media had attempted to 'demonise' China [46] while in April 2008, the Chinese Foreign Ministry demanded an apology from CNN after news commentator Jack Cafferty referred to the Chinese as a "bunch of goons and thugs" for which CNN subsequently apologized. [44]

James Kelly has argued that China's media censorship itself may be a major factor in fostering anti-Western sentiment, claiming that China's media gives a "very one-sided" view of the West. [1]

Tibetan independence

On 2 March 2009 the Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China published a white paper entitled: "Fifty Years of Democratic Reform in Tibet". In the paper the defeat of a Tibetan rebellion in 1959 is likened to the American civil war, arguing that China's abolition of Tibetan feudal serfdom was "entirely comparable to the emancipation of the slaves in the American civil war." [47] The white paper goes on to argue that by supporting the 14th Dalai Lama "Western anti-China forces" were guilty of ignoring historical facts regarding Tibet and that:

"It is thus clear that the so-called "Tibet issue" is by no means an ethnic, religious and human rights issue; rather, it is the Western anti-China forces' attempt to restrain, split, and demonize China." [47]

Cyber attacks

Following allegations of biased reporting by Western media outlets, especially CNN, regarding the March 2008 unrest in Tibet, CNN's website was hacked and replaced with a page proclaiming that "Tibet WAS, IS, and ALWAYS WILL BE a part of China". According to a report by Nick Lazaredes for Journeyman Pictures "patriotic hacking" by Chinese nationalists is on the rise and Western security experts estimate that there are up to 300,000 Chinese hackers ready to "wage a cyber-war." [45]

Surveys of public opinion about the US

In 2008, a report was prepared by the Committee of 100 with the assistance of Zogby International and the Horizon Research Consultancy Group. Entitled "Hope and Fear" [6] the report outlined the results of opinion polls regarding Chinese and American attitudes towards each other. The report found that while a significant proportion of the Chinese general public believe that the Western media portrays China inaccurately, Chinese people generally hold favourable views of the U.S. and report themselves as being less 'highly patriotic' than Americans, as shown in the tables below:

Question asked: "Do you think that the U.S. media portrays an accurate picture of China?"
Chinese General PublicChinese Opinion LeadersChinese Business Leaders
Yes152044
No495344
Not sure362712
Question asked: "How would you describe your impressions of the U.S.?"
Chinese General PublicChinese Opinion LeadersChinese Business Leaders
Favourable608694
Unfavourable26116
Question asked: "On a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 is "not patriotic at all" and 5 is "highly patriotic," how would you rate your patriotism?"
U.S. General PublicChinese General Public
(1) Not at All40
(2)41
(3)1624
(4)2224
(5) Highly Patriotic5447
Not Sure14

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuomintang</span> Taiwanese political party

The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a political party in Taiwan, initially based on the Chinese mainland and then in Taipei since 1949. The KMT is a centre-right to right-wing party and the largest in the Pan-Blue Coalition, one of the two main political groups in Taiwan. Its primary rival is the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), the largest party in the Pan-Green Coalition. As of 2024, the KMT is the largest single party in the Legislative Yuan. The current chairman is Eric Chu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2008 Summer Olympics</span> Multi-sport event in Beijing, China

The 2008 Summer Olympics (2008年夏季奥运会), officially the Games of the XXIX Olympiad (第二十九届夏季奥林匹克运动会) and officially branded as Beijing 2008 (北京2008), were an international multisport event held from 8 to 24 August 2008, in Beijing, China. A total of 10,942 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) competed in 28 sports and 302 events, one event more than those scheduled for the 2004 Summer Olympics. This was the first time China had hosted the Olympic Games, and the third time the Summer Olympic Games had been held in East Asia, following the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, and the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. These were also the second Summer Olympic Games to be held in a communist state, the first being the 1980 Summer Olympics in the Soviet Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese nationalism</span>

Chinese nationalism is a form of nationalism in which asserts that the Chinese people are a nation and promotes the cultural and national unity of all Chinese people. According to Sun Yat-sen's philosophy in the Three Principles of the People, Chinese nationalism is evaluated as multi-ethnic nationalism, which should be distinguished from Han nationalism or local ethnic nationalism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bai Chongxi</span> Chinese general

Bai Chongxi was a Chinese general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China (ROC) and a prominent Chinese Nationalist leader. He was of Hui ethnicity and of the Muslim faith. From the mid-1920s to 1949, Bai and his close ally Li Zongren ruled Guangxi province as regional warlords with their own troops and considerable political autonomy. His relationship with Chiang Kai-shek was at various times antagonistic and cooperative. He and Li Zongren supported the anti-Chiang warlord alliance in the Central Plains War in 1930, then supported Chiang in the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War. Bai was the first defense minister of the Republic of China from 1946 to 1948. After losing to the Communists in 1949, he fled to Taiwan, where he died in 1966.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Chinese sentiment</span> Hostility towards anything pertaining to China

Anti-Chinese sentiment is the fear or dislike of China, Chinese people and/or Chinese culture. In the western world, fear over the increasing economic and military power of China, its technological prowess and cultural reach, as well as international influence, has driven persistent and selectively negative media coverage of China. This is often aided and abetted by policymakers and politicians, whose actions are driven both by prejudice and expedience.

Free Tibet (FT) is a non-profit, non-governmental organisation, founded in 1987 and based in London, England. According to their mission statement, Free Tibet advocates for "a free Tibet in which Tibetans are able to determine their own future and the human rights of all are respected."

Patriotic hacking is a term for computer hacking or system cracking in which citizens or supporters of a country, traditionally industrialized Western countries but increasingly developing countries, attempt to perpetrate attacks on, or block attacks by, perceived enemies of the state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2008 Summer Olympics torch relay</span>

The 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay was run from March 24 until August 8, 2008, prior to the 2008 Summer Olympics, with the theme of "one world, one dream". Plans for the relay were announced on April 26, 2007, in Beijing, China. The relay, also called by the organizers as the "Journey of Harmony", lasted 129 days and carried the torch 137,000 km (85,000 mi) – the longest distance of any Olympic torch relay since the tradition was started ahead of the 1936 Summer Olympics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2008 Tibetan unrest</span> Political violence in Tibet

The 2008 Tibetan unrest, also referred to as the 2008 Tibetan uprising in Tibetan media, was a series of protests and demonstrations over the Chinese government's treatment and persecution of Tibetans. Protests in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, by monks and nuns on 10 March have been viewed as the start of the demonstrations. Numerous protests and demonstrations were held to commemorate the 49th anniversary of the 1959 Tibetan Uprising Day, when the 14th Dalai Lama escaped from Tibet. The protests and demonstrations spread spontaneously to a number of monasteries and throughout the Tibetan plateau, including into counties located outside the designated Tibet Autonomous Region.

April Media is a website established by Rao Jin, who was a 23-year-old Chinese student at the time, in response to what he identified as "the lies and distortions of facts from the Western media" concerning the 2008 Tibetan unrest and the People's Republic of China's national unity. The site states its purpose as "collect, classify, and exhibit the misbehavior of Western media". According to the website, the former name "Anti-CNN" did not exclusively indicate its objection to the American company CNN, but also to many other Western media sources, including the BBC, Der Spiegel, la Repubblica, n-tv, Bild, Fox News and RTL. The website states, "We are not against the western media, but against the lies and fabricated stories in the media. We are not against the western people, but against the prejudice from the western society."

Jin Jing is a Chinese female Paralympic fencer. She was a torchbearer carrying the Olympic torch amid political protests during the 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay in Paris, France. According to ABC News, she fended off protestors who "threw themselves" at her; most were wrestled away by French police but at least one reached her wheelchair and tried to wrench the torch away. Jin has gained national fame in China because of the incident, but was attacked on Chinese internet bulletin boards for her stance in the following call to boycott French retailer Carrefour that resulted from public anger toward France. In contrast, Western media concentrated on how the incident involving Jin Jing ignited Chinese nationalism and claimed that the incident was exploited for propaganda purposes by the state media.

A number of concerns and controversies surfaced before, during, and after the 2008 Summer Olympics, and which received major media coverage. Leading up to the Olympics, there were concerns about human rights in China, such that many high-profile individuals, such as politicians and celebrities, announced intentions to boycott the games to protest China's role in the Darfur conflict, and Myanmar, its stance towards Tibet, or other aspects of its human rights record. During the games in Beijing, the city was also under a high alert because of security concerns following civil unrest in Tibet and terrorist attacks by Xinjiang separatists. The levels of air pollution in Beijing also came under much scrutiny, due both to concerns about athletes' health and concerns that Beijing had failed to live up to promises it made during its Olympic bid. Foreign journalists at the games reportedly faced various restrictions to their work, limitations to internet access, and threats of physical violence. The gymnastics competition caused a major worldwide controversy during and after the games when some Chinese gymnasts were accused of being under the minimum age, but then cleared after an investigation. Other controversies surrounding the 2008 Summer Olympics included ticketing problems, displacement of Beijing residents due to construction and demolitions, and alleged persecution of individuals applying to protest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2008 Summer Olympics summit of Mount Everest</span>

The 2008 Summer Olympics summit of Mount Everest was the special route of the torch relay as part of the 2008 Summer Olympics taking place in China. Torchbearers reached Mount Everest at 9.20 in the morning on May 8, in parallel with the Shenzhen route. Another name for the climb is the Beijing Olympics Torch Relay Qomolangma Leg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bai Yansong</span> Chinese journalist

Bai Yansong is a Chinese news commentator, anchor and journalist for China Central Television (CCTV). He has become one of the most recognizable figures in China, serving as the lead anchor on stories such as the Sydney Olympics and the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Bai worked in the newspaper industry before moving to televised news and eventually became an anchor for Focus Report and Oriental Horizon, where he had a reputation as a politically incisive journalist. During his time with CCTV, Bai has been involved in the establishment of several news commentary programs including Timeline and News 1 + 1, the first live news commentary program in China. He has also been the anchor on several more news programs and was a host on the talk show Tell It Like It Is.

The 2008 Tibetan unrest was a series of protests and demonstrations met by excessive force, focused on the persecution of Tibetans, in the buildup to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. There was a mixture of outrage and understanding from leading figures abroad.

Anti-Korean sentiment in China refers to opposition, hostility, hatred, distrust, fear, and general dislike of Korean people or culture in China. This is sometimes referred to in China as the xianhan sentiment, which some have argued has been evoked by perceived Korean arrogance that has challenged the sense of superiority that the Chinese have traditionally associated with their 5,000-year-old civilization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Western sentiment</span> Hatred or opposition towards the Western world or its people

Anti-Western sentiment, also known as anti-Atlanticism or Westernophobia, refers to broad opposition, bias, or hostility towards the people, culture, or policies of the Western world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950</span>

Protests and uprisings in Tibet against the government of the People's Republic of China have occurred since 1950, and include the 1959 uprising, the 2008 uprising, and the subsequent self-immolation protests.

The Olympic Games have been criticized as upholding the colonial policies and practices of some host nations and cities either in the name of the Olympics by associated parties or directly by official Olympic bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, host organizing committees and official sponsors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea</span>

Korea has had a long history of both resistance against and subordination to Imperial China. Until the onset of Western imperialism in the 19th century, Korea had been part of the sinocentric East Asian regional order.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Anti-western sentiment flourishes in China". ABC. 24 April 2008. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Peter Hays Gries (July 2001). "Tears of Rage: Chinese Nationalist Reactions to the Belgrade Embassy Bombing". The China Journal. 46 (46). Canberra, Australia: Contemporary China Center, Australian National University: 25–43. doi:10.2307/3182306. ISSN   1324-9347. JSTOR   3182306. OCLC   41170782. S2CID   145482835.
  3. 1 2 "Protests against 'Tibet independence' erupt in cities". China Daily. 19 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  4. 1 2 "Looking past Western media bias against China". China Daily. 28 February 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  5. 1 2 "China criticises Western media". BBC News. 25 March 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  6. 1 2 3 4 "Hope and Fear: Full report of C-100's Survey on American and Chinese Attitudes Toward Each Other" (PDF). Committee of 100 with assistance from Zogby International and Horizon Research Consultancy Group. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2008. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
  7. 1 2 Peter Ford (17 April 2008). "Chinese vent anti-Western fury online". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
  8. 1 2 Zhao, Suisheng: "A State-led Nationalism: The Patriotic Education Campaign in Post-Tiananmen China", Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3. 1998. pp. 287-302
  9. ↑ Christopher A. Ford (30 June 2015). China Looks at the West: Identity, Global Ambitions, and the Future of Sino-American Relations. University Press of Kentucky. p. 62. ISBN   978-0-8131-6539-4.
  10. ↑ Suzanne Ogden; Professor of Political Science Suzanne Ogden (2002). Inklings of Democracy in China. Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 384. ISBN   978-0-674-00879-3.
  11. ↑ Mary Clabaugh Wright (1957). Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism the T'Ung-Chih. Stanford University Press. p. 121. ISBN   0-8047-0475-9.
  12. ↑ James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. EDINBURGH: T. & T. Clark. p. 893. ISBN   9780567065094 . Retrieved 28 November 2010.(Original from Harvard University)
  13. ↑ Diana Lary (1974). Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937. Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN   0-521-20204-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  14. ↑ Diana Lary (1974). Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937. Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN   0-521-20204-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  15. ↑ Diana Lary (1974). Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937. Cambridge University Press. p. 100. ISBN   0-521-20204-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  16. ↑ Diana Lary (1974). Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937. Cambridge University Press. p. 124. ISBN   0-521-20204-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  17. ↑ Frederic E. Wakeman (2003). Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese secret service. University of California Press. p. 75. ISBN   0-520-23407-3 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  18. ↑ Jonathan Fenby (2005). Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost. Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 414. ISBN   0-7867-1484-0 . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  19. ↑ Friedberg, Aaron L.: "The Future of U.S.-China Relations: Is Conflict Inevitable?", International Security, Vol. 30, No. 2. (Fall 2005) pp. 7-45, p.20
  20. ↑ Schell, Orville (14 August 2008). "China, Humiliation & the Olympics". The New York Review of Books, vol. 55, no. 13. p. 3.
  21. 1 2 3 Wang, Zheng: "National Humiliation, History Education, and the Politics of Historical Memory: Patriotic Education Campaign in China", International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 4. (December 2008) pp. 783-806, p.784
  22. ↑ Pyle, Kenneth B.: "Reading the New Era in Asia: The Use of History and Culture in the Making of Foreign Policy", Asia Policy, 3. 2007. pp. 1-11
  23. ↑ "Chinese demand U.N. meeting after Belgrade embassy attacked". CNN. 7 May 1999. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
  24. ↑ "World: Europe; Analysis: Nato's diplomatic blunder". BBC News. 8 May 1999. Retrieved 9 May 2009.[ permanent dead link ]
  25. ↑ "Families grieve victims of Chinese embassy bombing as NATO air campaign continues". CNN. 10 May 1999. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
  26. 1 2 "Clashes along Olympic torch route". BBC News. 6 April 2008. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
  27. ↑ Walker, Peter (7 April 2008). "Olympic torch relay cut short amid Paris protests". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
  28. ↑ Anast, Paul; Spencer, Richard (26 April 2008). "Demonstrators disrupt Olympic torch lighting". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  29. ↑ "Anti-China protest targets Olympic torch ceremony". The New York Times. 3 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  30. ↑ "Argentine torch relay unhindered". BBC News. 11 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  31. ↑ "Bangkok relay for Olympic torch". BBC News. 19 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  32. ↑ "Rival demonstrators face off in Canberra". ABC News. 24 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  33. ↑ Sheridan, Michael (27 April 2008). "Japan mobs Olympic torch of trouble". Times Online. London. Retrieved 23 May 2009.[ dead link ]
  34. ↑ "Scuffles at South Korea torch leg". BBC News. 27 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  35. ↑ MacArtney, Jane (7 April 2008). "China condemns 'vile' London torch protests". The Times Online. Archived from the original on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
  36. ↑ "San Francisco Olympic torch run moved amid protests". CBC News. 6 May 2008. Archived from the original on 30 June 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
  37. ↑ "Beijing Olympic flame's overall journey-light the passion, share the dream". CCTV. 8 August 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  38. ↑ "Muse of 2008 Olympic torch relay". China Daily. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
  39. ↑ "Anti-Carrefour protests spread". China Economic Review. 21 April 2008. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
  40. ↑ "Carrefour faces China boycott bid". BBC News. 15 April 2008. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
  41. ↑ "Carrefour CEO Denies Backing Dalai Lama". Forbes. 19 April 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  42. ↑ "Lhasa riot reports show media bias in West". China Daily. 22 March 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  43. 1 2 Deng Shasha (24 May 2009). "Chinese youth feel attached to country, aware of social issues". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 27 May 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  44. 1 2 Alexi Mostous (16 April 2008). "CNN apologises to China over 'thugs and goons' comment by Jack Cafferty". The Times Online. London. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  45. 1 2 Nick Lazaredes (2008). Cyber Warriors (Internet-Documentary). China: Journeyman Pictures.
  46. ↑ Fu Ying (13 April 2008). "Chinese ambassador Fu Ying: Western media has 'demonised' China". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
  47. 1 2 Anon (2 March 2009). "Fifty Years of Democratic Reform in Tibet". Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. Retrieved 10 July 2009.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

Further reading

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, a publication from 1916, now in the public domain in the United States.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.