Archaeological looting

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A looter's pit (left) at the ancient Sumerian city of Kish, Iraq. Fragments of pottery (right) are scattered near the pit A looter's pit (left) at the ancient Sumerian city of Kish, Iraq. Fragments of pottery (right) are scattered near the pit.jpg
A looter's pit (left) at the ancient Sumerian city of Kish, Iraq. Fragments of pottery (right) are scattered near the pit

Archaeological looting is the illicit removal of artifacts from an archaeological site. Such looting is the major source of artifacts for the antiquities market. [1] Looting typically involves either the illegal exportation of artifacts from their country of origin or the domestic distribution of looted goods. [2] Looting has been linked to the economic and political stability of the possessing nation, with levels of looting increasing during times of crisis, [3] but it has been known to occur during peacetimes and some looters take part in the practice as a means of income, referred to as subsistence looting. [4] However, looting is also endemic in so-called "archaeological countries" like Italy, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus and other areas of the Mediterranean Basin, as well as many areas of Africa, South East Asia and Central and South America, which have a rich heritage of archaeological sites, a large proportion of which are still unknown to formal archaeological science. Many countries have antique looting laws which state that the removal of the cultural object without formal permission is illegal and considered theft. [5] Looting is not only illegal; the practice may also threaten access to cultural heritage. Cultural heritage is knowledge about a heritage that is passed down from generation to generation. [6]

Contents

Grave robbery is a type of archaeological looting. Grave robbing is the illegal removal of bodies from grave sites. Often, grave robbing involves stealing artefacts or personal items within ones burial which may later be sold on the black market.

Sites of archaeological looting

Egypt

Much of Egypt's cultural heritage has been and remains under threat of pillage. Tomb raiders and looters have been attempting to steal from Pharaonic sites since such structures were built, and the 2011 Arab Spring revolution has only since exacerbated the problem. [7] [8] Three regions have been especially hit hard since the revolution, with some estimates citing a five hundred percent increase in looting in the sites of Saqqara, Lisht, and el Hibeh. [9] Many sites are often left unguarded and unmonitored due to a lack of funding, but there has been a recent surge in social media activism that seeks to report and document the loss and damage caused by looters, in an attempt to combat further theft and vandalism. [10]

Syria

Apamea

Apamea was a Greco-Roman city with a large acropolis in the western region of modern-day Syria, located on the bank of the Orontes river. It is an important archaeological site, with several notable remains such as the Great Colonnade and a sizable Roman theater. In the chaos created by the Syrian civil war, the site has been looted and damaged extensively, as evidenced by satellite imagery of the area. [11] [12]

Dura-Europos

Ruins of Dura-Europos Dura Europos - Palmyra gate - panoramio.jpg
Ruins of Dura-Europos

Dura-Europos is an ancient city located in modern-day southeast Syria covering about 140 acres of land. [13] [14] It was built from stone in 256 CE in an early Roman era town. [15] [14] In 1920, it was discovered by British soldiers while digging trenches during World War I. [15] Multiple figures, shrines, and sculptures of various cultures and religions (Roman, Sumerian, Palmyrene, Judean, Parthian, and Greek) were found here. [16] It also contains sacred architecture, wall paintings, and the oldest depiction of Jesus Christ. [13] The site represents a blend of many different cultural traditions. [13] It is said that 70 percent of the site has been ruined because of looters. [15] Based on images from satellites in 2014, the mud-brick walls have been left cratered. [16] [17]

Ventarron, Peru

Ventarron is an archaeological site in the Lambayeque region in Northern Peru. It is the location of a temple built roughly around 2000 BCE, making it one of the oldest archaeological sites in South America. The site has been looted repeatedly, mostly due to low surveillance and resources to protect the site. A study by Lasapornara et al. uses satellite imagery to investigate the extension of the looting. [18]

Controversial artefacts

Elgin Marbles

The Elgin Marbles residing in the British Museum Elgin Marbles British Museum.jpg
The Elgin Marbles residing in the British Museum

The Elgin Marbles, or Parthenon Marbles are a collection of architecture and sculptures originating from the Parthenon in Athens. [19] Thomas Bruce of Scotland, the 7th Earl of Elgin removed the Marbles and had them shipped to England. [19] Thomas Bruce was the Ottoman Empire's British ambassador. [19] Some say that the 7th Earl of Elgin looted the Marbles, but others say that he received permission from the Ottoman authorities. [20] The Elgin Marbles were removed from Greece and brought to London. The Marbles were bought from the 7th Earl of Elgin by Great Britain and they are now displayed in the British Museum. [21] [22] It is a controversial topic as to who the Elgin Marbles belong to. [19] The Greek government wants the Marbles back because at the time the Marbles were taken to London, Greece was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. [19] The British Museum wants to keep the marbles in London because they claim they are saving the Marbles from damage [19] despite the Acropolis Museum in Athens having been built specifically with the protection of these artifacts in mind. [23]

Euphronios Krater

The Euphronios Krater painting of Sarpedon dying Euphronios krater side A MET L.2006.10.jpg
The Euphronios Krater painting of Sarpedon dying

The Euphronios, or Sarpedon Krater, is an ancient Greek vessel. It was made around 515 BC in Athens by the artist Euphronios. The vessel was used to mix wine and water. The vessel is said to have been excavated from an Etruscan tomb. [24] The painting on it is an image of Sarpedon, the son of Zeus, dying with Hermes, Hypnos, and Thanatos surrounding Sarapedon. [25] The vessel also includes a painting of 3 children of Athens preparing for a battle. [25] One popular story for the Euphronios Krater is that the Krater was looted by grave robbers and then sold to Giacomo Medici who is an Italian art dealer who has been convicted of receiving and exporting stolen objects. [26] [24] The Krater is said to have then been sold to Robert Hecht who is an American antiques dealer and then sold to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. [24] The Metropolitan Museum of Art is said to have purchased the Euphronios Krater in 1972 for one million dollars. [24] Eventually, the Krater was returned to the Italian Government and the Krater was brought to the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome. [24]

Detecting looted sites by satellite

The telltale "pockmarks" at a looted site which algorithms can recognize and flag as suspicious September 11, 2016. The upper surface of Yasin Tepe ancient mound, innumerable looters' pits, Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg
The telltale "pockmarks" at a looted site which algorithms can recognize and flag as suspicious

Illegal excavations leave distinctive pits across the surface of an archaeological site which bear no resemblance to the surface changes made by official, methodological archaeological work. [4] Satellite imaging is one method employed to help identify sites of looting, both by detecting recent lootings and by corroborating reports from locals on the ground, [4] and recent technological advancements have enabled the use of software which automatically parses through satellite images applied to digital elevation models (DEMs) to find irregularities consistent with sites of looting. [27] Satellites have also been used effectively to keep an eye on sites where looting has been known to occur. [4] Additional measures of aerial surveillance of archaeological sites, including by drones, helicopters, and airplanes, have seen limited application due to interference imposed by local governments and conflict. [4] [27] Satellite imaging may be effective at detecting locations which have been looted in this visually distinct way, but these techniques are ineffective when applied to other ways in which historic sites can be stolen from or defaced. [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parthenon</span> Temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece

The Parthenon is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of classical Greek art, an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece, democracy and Western civilization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elgin Marbles</span> Ancient Greek sculptures held in London

The Elgin Marbles are a collection of Ancient Greek sculptures from the Parthenon and other structures from the Acropolis of Athens, removed from Ottoman Greece and shipped to Britain by agents of Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, and now held in the British Museum in London. The majority of the sculptures were created in the 5th century BC under the direction of sculptor and architect Phidias.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin</span> British nobleman and diplomat (1766–1841)

Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin and 11th Earl of Kincardine,, often known as Lord Elgin, was a British nobleman, diplomat, and collector, known primarily for the controversial procurement of marble sculptures from the Parthenon and other structures on the Acropolis of Athens.

The British Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles (BCRPM) is a group of British people who support the return of the Parthenon (Elgin) marbles to Athens, Greece. Members include Dame Janet Suzman (chairperson) and professors Anthony Snodgrass (honorary president), Paul Cartledge (Vice-Chair), and Andrew Wallace-Hadrill.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artifact (archaeology)</span> Something made by humans and of archaeological interest

An artifact or artefact is a general term for an item made or given shape by humans, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology, the word has become a term of particular nuance and is defined as an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, which may be a cultural artifact having cultural interest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bassae</span> UNESCO World Heritage Site in Oichalia, Greece

Bassae is an archaeological site in Oichalia, a municipality in the northeastern part of Messenia, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was part of Arcadia. Bassae lies near the village of Skliros, northeast of Figaleia, south of Andritsaina and west of Megalopolis. It is famous for the well-preserved mid- to late-5th century BC Temple of Apollo Epicurius.

Archaeological ethics refers to the moral issues raised through the study of the material past. It is a branch of the philosophy of archaeology. This article will touch on human remains, the preservation and laws protecting remains and cultural items, issues around the globe, as well as preservation and ethnoarchaeology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euphronios</span> Greek vase painter and potter (c. 535 – after 470 BC)

Euphronios was an ancient Greek vase painter and potter, active in Athens in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. As part of the so-called "Pioneer Group,", Euphronios was one of the most important artists of the red-figure technique. His works place him at the transition from Late Archaic to Early Classical art, and he is one of the first known artists in history to have signed his work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euphronios Krater</span> Famous Ancient Greek paint vase bowl from Athens c. 515 BC.

The Euphronios Krater is an ancient Greek terra cotta calyx-krater, a bowl used for mixing wine with water. Created around the year 515 BC, it is the only complete example of the surviving 27 vases painted by the renowned Euphronios and is considered one of the finest Ancient Greek vases in existence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Repatriation (cultural property)</span> Return of stolen art to the original owners or heirs

Repatriation is the return of the cultural property, often referring to ancient or looted art, to their country of origin or former owners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Looted art</span> Art that was taken illegally

Looted art has been a consequence of looting during war, natural disaster and riot for centuries. Looting of art, archaeology and other cultural property may be an opportunistic criminal act or may be a more organized case of unlawful or unethical pillage by the victor of a conflict. The term "looted art" reflects bias, and whether particular art has been taken legally or illegally is often the subject of conflicting laws and subjective interpretations of governments and people; use of the term "looted art" in reference to a particular art object implies that the art was taken illegally.

Giacomo Medici is an Italian antiquities smuggler and art dealer who was convicted in 2004 of dealing in stolen ancient artifacts. His operation was thought to be "one of the largest and most sophisticated antiquities networks in the world, responsible for illegally digging up and spiriting away thousands of top-drawer pieces and passing them on to the most elite end of the international art market".

Robin Symes was a British antiquities dealer who was unmasked as a key player in an international criminal network that traded in looted archaeological treasures. Symes and his long-term partner Christo Michaelides met and formed a business partnership in the 1970s, and Symes became one of Britain's most prominent and successful antiquities dealers. However, after Michaelides died accidentally in 1999, his family took legal action to recover his share of the Symes company's assets, and when the matter went to trial, Symes was found to have lied in his evidence about the extent and value of his property; he was subsequently charged with and convicted of contempt of court, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, of which he served seven months. Further investigations by Italian authorities revealed in January 2016 that Symes's involvement in the illegal antiquities trade had been even more extensive than previously thought, and that he had hidden a vast hoard of looted antiquities in 45 crates at the Geneva Freeport storage warehouse in Switzerland for 15 years to conceal them from Michaelides's family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acropolis Museum</span> Archaeological museum in Athens, Greece

The Acropolis Museum is an archaeological museum focused on the findings of the archaeological site of the Acropolis of Athens. The museum was built to house every artifact found on the rock and on the surrounding slopes, from the Greek Bronze Age to Roman and Byzantine Greece. The Acropolis Museum also lies over the ruins of part of Roman and early Byzantine Athens.

The antiquities trade is the exchange of antiquities and archaeological artifacts from around the world. This trade may be illicit or completely legal. The legal antiquities trade abides by national regulations, allowing for extraction of artifacts for scientific study whilst maintaining archaeological and anthropological context. The illicit antiquities trade involves non-scientific extraction that ignores the archaeological and anthropological context from the artifacts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palermo Fragment</span> Marble fragment from the Acropolis of Athens, removed by Lord Elgin

The Palermo fragment, also known as Fagan slab from the name of the artist and British consul Robert Fagan who owned it, is a 2,500-year-old marble sculpture fragment of the foot and dress of the ancient Greek goddess Artemis.

Ian Dennis Jenkins was a Senior Curator at the British Museum who was an expert on ancient Greece and specialised in ancient Greek sculpture. Jenkins published a number of books and over a hundred articles. He led the British Museum's excavations at Cnidus and was involved in the debate over the ownership of the Elgin Marbles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carabinieri Art Squad</span>

The Carabinieri Command for the Protection of Cultural Heritage, better known as the Carabinieri T.P.C., is the branch of the Italian Carabinieri responsible for combatting art and antiquities crimes and is viewed as an experienced and efficient task force.

The Elgin Marbles is a 2006 book by American archaeologist Dorothy King about the 5th century BCE Classical Greek marble sculptures known as the Elgin Marbles.

References

  1. ↑ Bowman Proulx 2013, p.111.
  2. ↑ "Expedition Magazine - Penn Museum". www.penn.museum. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  3. ↑ Valdés 2006, p. 98.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tapete, Deodato; Cigna, Francesca. 2019. "Detection of Archaeological Looting from Space: Methods, Achievements and Challenges." Remote Sens. 11, no. 20: 2389.
  5. ↑ "Illicit Antiquities « Trafficking Culture" . Retrieved 2020-07-13.
  6. ↑ "What is Cultural Heritage? (article)". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  7. ↑ Fagan, Brian; Fagan, Professor of Anthropology Brian (2004-09-15). The Rape of the Nile: Tomb Robbers, Tourists, and Archaeologists in Egypt, Revised and Updated. Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-8133-4061-6.
  8. ↑ Parcak, Sarah; Gathings, David; Childs, Chase; Mumford, Greg; Cline, Eric (February 2016). "Satellite evidence of archaeological site looting in Egypt: 2002–2013". Antiquity. 90 (349): 188–205. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2016.1 . ISSN   0003-598X.
  9. ↑ Parcak, Sarah (2015-09-01). "Archaeological Looting in Egypt: A Geospatial View (Case Studies from Saqqara, Lisht, and el Hibeh)". Near Eastern Archaeology. 78 (3): 196–203. doi: 10.5615/neareastarch.78.3.0196 . ISSN   1094-2076.
  10. ↑ Ikram, Salima, and Monica Hanna. "Looting and land grabbing: the current situation in Egypt." Bulletin of the American Research Center in Egypt 202 (2013): 34-39.
  11. ↑ Lawler, Andrew (2014-12-05). "Satellites track heritage loss across Syria and Iraq". Science. 346 (6214): 1162–1163. doi:10.1126/science.346.6214.1162. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   25477436.
  12. ↑ Tapete, Deodato; Cigna, Francesca; Donoghue, Daniel N.M. (2016-06-01). "'Looting marks' in space-borne SAR imagery: Measuring rates of archaeological looting in Apamea (Syria) with TerraSAR-X Staring Spotlight". Remote Sensing of Environment. 178: 42–58. Bibcode:2016RSEnv.178...42T. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2016.02.055 . ISSN   0034-4257.
  13. 1 2 3 "Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing the Status of Syria's Tentative World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery | American Association for the Advancement of Science". www.aaas.org. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  14. 1 2 "Church of Dura-Europos · Christian Architecture Through the Middle Ages · Medieval Art". projects.leadr.msu.edu. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  15. 1 2 3 "Via Satellite, Tracking The Plunder Of Middle East Cultural History". NPR.org. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  16. 1 2 "ISIS seeks to control the country's future by destroying its Christian past". America Magazine. 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  17. ↑ "Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed". National Geographic News. 2015-09-01. Archived from the original on August 13, 2019. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  18. ↑ Lasaponara, Rosa; Leucci, Giovanni; Masini, Nicola; Persico, Raffaele (2014-02-01). "Investigating archaeological looting using satellite images and GEORADAR: the experience in Lambayeque in North Peru". Journal of Archaeological Science. 42: 216–230. Bibcode:2014JArSc..42..216L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.032. ISSN   0305-4403.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Elgin Marbles | Greek sculpture". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  20. ↑ Ward, Victoria (2020-06-18). "Why are the Elgin marbles so controversial – and everything else you need to know". The Telegraph. ISSN   0307-1235 . Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  21. ↑ "Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of Elgin | British diplomat". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  22. ↑ "How the Parthenon Lost Its Marbles". History Magazine. 2017-03-28. Archived from the original on October 11, 2019. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  23. ↑ "Greece Unveils Museum Meant For 'Stolen' Sculptures". NPR. 2009-10-19. Retrieved 2022-03-28.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 "The Euphronios Krater Controversy | Museum Studies 2015". sites.psu.edu. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  25. 1 2 "Euphronios (Sarpedon) Krater "Trafficking Culture"" . Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  26. ↑ "Giacomo Medici « Trafficking Culture" . Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  27. 1 2 Lasaponara, Rosa, et al. "Investigating Archaeological Looting Using Satellite Images and GEORADAR: the Experience in Lambayeque in North Peru." Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 42, Feb. 2014, pp. 216–230., doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.032. Bibcode:2014JArSc..42..216L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.032.

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