Avian metaavulavirus 2

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Avian metaavulavirus 2
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Monjiviricetes
Order: Mononegavirales
Family: Paramyxoviridae
Genus: Metaavulavirus
Species:
Avian metaavulavirus 2
Synonyms
  • Avian avulavirus 2 [1]
  • Avian paramyxovirus 2 [2]
  • Yucaipa paramyxovirus [3]
  • Yucaipa virus [4]

Avian metaavulavirus 2, formerly Avian paramyxovirus 2, is a species of virus belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Metaavulavirus . The virus is a negative strand RNA virus containing a monopartite genome. Avian metaavulavirus 2 is one of nine species belonging to the genus Metaavulavirus. The most common serotype of Avulavirinae is serotype 1, the cause of Newcastle disease (ND).[ citation needed ]Avian metaavulavirus 2 has been known to cause disease, specifically mild respiratory infections in domestic poultry, including turkeys and chickens, and has many economic effects on egg production and poultry industries. [5] The virus was first isolated from a strain in Yucaipa, California in 1956. Since then, other isolates of the virus have been isolated worldwide.

Contents

Domesticated poultry, including turkeys and chickens are the common host of Avian metaavulavirus 2. Upon infection, turkeys usually present mild respiratory symptoms and reduced egg production Indian Turkey.jpg
Domesticated poultry, including turkeys and chickens are the common host of Avian metaavulavirus 2. Upon infection, turkeys usually present mild respiratory symptoms and reduced egg production

Viral classification

Avian metaavulavirus 2 is a negative sense RNA virus with a monopartite genome. [5] It belongs to Group V of the Baltimore Classification System of viruses.

Structure

All Paramyxovirus virus particles are composed of a ribonucleoprotein core and a lipoprotein bilayer. [7] Avian paramyxoviruses contain a viral envelope that encapsulates a spherical viral capsid containing the negative-sense RNA genome. The members of the Paramyxoviridae family, including Avian metaavulavirus 2, follow the 'rule of six,' having a genome length that is a multiple of six. This allows for proper packing of the genome in the nucleocapsid. [8] The structure of the envelope is characterized by the spike-like projections of two viral proteins, the fusion protein (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (Hn) protein. However, these protein projections may differ between the nine serotypes of avian paramyxoviruses. [8] The matrix protein (M) is believed to form the inner layer of the envelope and interacts with the F and Hn proteins on the outside of the viral envelope during viral entry. [8]

Genome

Avian metaavulavirus 2 has a negative-sense RNA genome that upon entry into the cell, must be transcribed into a positive-sense mRNA in order to produce viral proteins and to replicate the genome. It has been hypothesized by electron microscopy, that the genome assumes a left-handed helical structure. [7] The genome size of an isolated Yucaipa strain, isolated from chickens in Yucaipa, California in 1956, [9] is 14,904 nucleotides long and contains a leader sequence of 55 nucleotides at the 3' end and a trailer sequence of 154 nt at the 5'end. [10] However, other isolated strains of Avian metaavulavirus 2 have been isolated that contain genomes of similar, but different, lengths. Avian metaavulavirus 2 is one of the smallest in the Paramyxoviridae family. [10] The genome encodes six viral proteins that are separated from each other via intergenic regions that are between 3-23 nucleotides long. [10] The six viral genes are surrounded by regions of transcription stop and start signals that aid in transcription of the genome and production of subgenomic RNAs. The viral genomes of most paramyxovirus serotypes encode genes for a nucleocapsid protein (N), a phosphoprotein (P), a matrix protein (M), a fusion protein (F), a hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (Hn) protein and a large polymerase protein (L). [8]

Replication cycle

Attachment and entry

A common feature of all paramyxoviruses is the presence of two membrane-anchored glycoproteins, one required for virion attachment and one required for fusion. [11] It is believed that the F and Hn proteins present on the outer envelope of the virus assist in entry of the virus into the host cell. The fusion protein (F) is an integral membrane protein, sharing many features similar to other viral fusion proteins [11] and is directly involved in virus fusion. It is believed that two heptad repeat regions (HR1) and (HR2) form a six-helix bundle structure that helps to induce fusion of the viral membrane with the host cell membrane. [12] The Hn protein is made up of a stalk and a globular head that contains receptor-binding capabilities that bind to sialic acid receptors located on cells in the upper respiratory tract of the host. [11] It is hypothesized that interactions between the Hn and F proteins cause conformational changes in the respective proteins controlling the attachment and fusion of the viral capsid with the host cell membrane. [8]

Viral replication and production of viral protein

Avian paramyxoviruses fall under the genus Avulavirus, along with Newcastle disease in the family Paramyxoviridae. Phylogenetic tree based on the N protein sequences of selected paramyxoviruses..png
Avian paramyxoviruses fall under the genus Avulavirus, along with Newcastle disease in the family Paramyxoviridae.

Paramyxoviruses only encode one RNA polymerase and it is believed that replication takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell, with no involvement or entry into the host cell nucleus. [7] Little is understood as to how the polymerase assists in both viral replication and transcription and how these processes can be regulated. [13] The encoded polymerase consists of two proteins, a large subunit responsible for RNA synthesis and capping, and the encoded protein phosphoprotein (P) which acts as a cofactor. [13] As described, the viral genome includes intergenic regions between the viral genes with specific start and stop signals. The polymerase recognizes these cis-acting elements within the viral genome and initiates transcription. [13] Transcription first begins at the 3' end of the genome at a 40-55 nucleotide long promoter region. The polymerase produces subgenomic RNAs by transcribing each gene, releasing the produced RNA and then locating the next gene for transcription by the cis-acting elements present in the genome. [13] The signal at which the polymerase releases the transcribed RNA of a single gene is believed to contain a Poly U tract, leading to the capping of a poly(A) tail to the transcribed RNA. [13] In contrast to producing viral mRNA for viral protein synthesis, when replicating the viral genome, the polymerase does not start and stop at the indicated cis-acting elements between each gene. Instead, the polymerase elongates the RNA along the entire length of the genome. Described above is one model for the hypothesized viral replication and protein production of paramyxoviruses, however, other models exist that suggest the polymerase initiates replication and transcription at different areas in the genome. [13]

Assembly and release

A general model of paramyxoviruse structure including a spherical capsid that is enveloped and identified by two viral proteins, the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein (Hn) and a fusion protein (F). All paramyxoviruses assume this general capsid structure, however, they may differ in the proteins present on the envelope. Paramyxoviridae-Schema.png
A general model of paramyxoviruse structure including a spherical capsid that is enveloped and identified by two viral proteins, the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein (Hn) and a fusion protein (F). All paramyxoviruses assume this general capsid structure, however, they may differ in the proteins present on the envelope.

It is believed that the matrix protein (M) on the inner face of the viral envelope plays a major role in the budding of virus-like particles from the infected host cell. [14] The M protein interacts with the Hn and F proteins, helping to incorporate these proteins into viral particles for release. [8] It has been hypothesized that matrix proteins of paramyxoviruses interact with the host vacuolar protein sorting system to initiate budding of the host cell membrane. The interactions of the Hn, F and M proteins are not well understood, however, it is believed that paramyxovirus assembly and release relies on protein-protein interactions and specific targeting of proteins to areas of the host cell and membrane [14]

Interactions with host

In cell culture, many paramyxoviruses express a cytopathic effect by syncytium formation, the fusion of infected cells with neighboring cells producing a large multi-nucleated cell. [8] However, certain serotypes of avian paramyxovirus do not show syncytium formation, only cell rounding. Studies have shown that upon infection, microscopic lesions form in the trachea, lungs and, more rarely, in the gut of animal models infected with Avian metaavulavirus 2. [5] It has also been shown that model birds infected with isolates of Avian metaavulavirus 2 experience diarrhea and show enlarged pancreas. [5]

Tropism

Avian metaavulavirus 2 is believed to infect tissues of the respiratory tract and in some cases, tissues of the lungs. The viral envelope protein, Hn, binds to sialic acid residues present in cells in the upper respiratory tract. It has been found that in chickens, some may present mild respiratory symptoms or be asymptomatic. [9] It is believed that more severe symptoms including sinusitis and a decrease in egg production occurs in turkeys. [9] Other symptoms including reduced hatchability and infertility of eggs has been reported. [6]

Virus distribution

Avian metaavulavirus 2 has reservoirs in feral avian species and is known to cause respiratory disease and have economic impacts on egg production and poultry industries [15] The natural hosts of Avian metaavulavirus 2 include turkeys and passerines. However, other hosts include chickens, rails and psittacines. Avian metaavulavirus 2 has been reported in birds in Europe, Asia and North and South America. In the US, it has been shown that the virus more likely infects turkeys than chickens. [9] Isolates of Avian metaavulavirus 2 have been recovered from areas in the US, Bulgaria, Costa Rica, Africa and many other places, signifying that Avian metaavulavirus 2 occurs worldwide. [5]

Transmission and control

Transmission occurs slowly between domesticated turkey flocks in the United States and the mode of transmission is not well defined. [6] It is hypothesized that infections of Avian metaavulavirus 2 in domesticated poultry stem from interactions with infected wild birds. [6] Preventative measures can be taken to prevent spread of Avian metaavulavirus 2 in domesticated flocks. Such prevention measures include minimizing interactions between flocks and wild birds by bird proofing areas where poultry are housed and raised and good sanitation practices. [6] No human infections have been reported of Avian metaavulavirus 2 [6]

Related Research Articles

<i>Paramyxoviridae</i> Family of viruses

Paramyxoviridae is a family of negative-strand RNA viruses in the order Mononegavirales. Vertebrates serve as natural hosts. Diseases associated with this family include measles, mumps, and respiratory tract infections. The family has four subfamilies, 17 genera, three of which are unassigned to a subfamily, and 78 species.

<i>Henipavirus</i> Genus of RNA viruses

Henipavirus is a genus of negative-strand RNA viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales containing six established species, and numerous others still under study. Henipaviruses are naturally harboured by several species of small mammals, notably pteropid fruit bats, microbats of several species, and shrews. Henipaviruses are characterised by long genomes and a wide host range. Their recent emergence as zoonotic pathogens capable of causing illness and death in domestic animals and humans is a cause of concern.

<i>Rhabdoviridae</i> Family of viruses in the order Mononegavirales

Rhabdoviridae is a family of negative-strand RNA viruses in the order Mononegavirales. Vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, fungi and protozoans serve as natural hosts. Diseases associated with member viruses include rabies encephalitis caused by the rabies virus, and flu-like symptoms in humans caused by vesiculoviruses. The name is derived from Ancient Greek rhabdos, meaning rod, referring to the shape of the viral particles. The family has 40 genera, most assigned to three subfamilies.

<i>Hepadnaviridae</i> Family of viruses

Hepadnaviridae is a family of viruses. Humans, apes, and birds serve as natural hosts. There are currently 18 species in this family, divided among 5 genera. Its best-known member is hepatitis B virus. Diseases associated with this family include: liver infections, such as hepatitis, hepatocellular carcinomas, and cirrhosis. It is the sole accepted family in the order Blubervirales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mumps virus</span> Viral agent that causes mumps

The mumps virus (MuV) is the virus that causes mumps. MuV contains a single-stranded, negative-sense genome made of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Its genome is about 15,000 nucleotides in length and contains seven genes that encode nine proteins. The genome is encased by a capsid that is in turn surrounded by a viral envelope. MuV particles, called virions, are pleomorphic in shape and vary in size from 100 to 600 nanometers in diameter. One serotype and twelve genotypes that vary in their geographic distribution are recognized. Humans are the only natural host of the mumps virus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral replication</span> Formation of biological viruses during the infection process

Viral replication is the formation of biological viruses during the infection process in the target host cells. Viruses must first get into the cell before viral replication can occur. Through the generation of abundant copies of its genome and packaging these copies, the virus continues infecting new hosts. Replication between viruses is greatly varied and depends on the type of genes involved in them. Most DNA viruses assemble in the nucleus while most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human parainfluenza viruses</span> Viruses that cause human parainfluenza

Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) are the viruses that cause human parainfluenza. HPIVs are a paraphyletic group of four distinct single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the Paramyxoviridae family. These viruses are closely associated with both human and veterinary disease. Virions are approximately 150–250 nm in size and contain negative sense RNA with a genome encompassing about 15,000 nucleotides.

<i>Pseudomonas virus phi6</i> Species of virus

Φ6 is the best-studied bacteriophage of the virus family Cystoviridae. It infects Pseudomonas bacteria. It has a three-part, segmented, double-stranded RNA genome, totalling ~13.5 kb in length. Φ6 and its relatives have a lipid membrane around their nucleocapsid, a rare trait among bacteriophages. It is a lytic phage, though under certain circumstances has been observed to display a delay in lysis which may be described as a "carrier state".

<i>Orthoreovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Orthoreovirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Reoviridae, in the subfamily Spinareovirinae. Vertebrates serve as natural hosts. There are ten species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include mild upper respiratory tract disease, gastroenteritis, and biliary atresia. Mammalian orthoreovirus 3 induces cell death preferentially in transformed cells and therefore displays inherent oncolytic properties.

<i>Murine respirovirus</i> Sendai virus, virus of rodents

Murine respirovirus, formerly Sendai virus (SeV) and previously also known as murine parainfluenza virus type 1 or hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ), is an enveloped, 150-200 nm–diameter, negative sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae. It typically infects rodents and it is not pathogenic for humans or domestic animals.

<i>Avulavirinae</i> Genus of viruses

Avulavirinae is a subfamily of viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae. Members of the subfamily are collectively known as avulaviruses. All members of the subfamily primarily infect birds. Avulavirinae was previously recognized as the genus Avulavirus before being elevated to a subfamily. The term avula comes from "avian rubula", distinguishing it from rubulaviruses of the subfamily Rubulavirinae due to avulaviruses only infecting birds and translating protein V from an edited RNA transcript. The most notable avulavirus is the Newcastle disease virus, a strain of Avian orthoavulavirus 1.

Mason-Pfizer monkey virus (M-PMV), formerly Simian retrovirus (SRV), is a species of retroviruses that usually infect and cause a fatal immune deficiency in Asian macaques. The ssRNA virus appears sporadically in mammary carcinoma of captive macaques at breeding facilities which expected as the natural host, but the prevalence of this virus in feral macaques remains unknown. M-PMV was transmitted naturally by virus-containing body fluids, via biting, scratching, grooming, and fighting. Cross contaminated instruments or equipment (fomite) can also spread this virus among animals.

<i>Avibirnavirus</i> Genus of viruses

Avibirnavirus is a genus of viruses in family Birnaviridae. There is a single species in this genus: Infectious bursal disease virus, which infects chickens and other fowl. It causes severe inflammation of the bursa of Fabricius, and causes considerable morbidity and mortality.

<i>Respirovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Respirovirus is a genus of viruses in the order Mononegavirales, in the family Paramyxoviridae. Rodents and human serve as natural hosts. There are seven species in this genus. Diseases associated with this genus include: croup and other acute febrile respiratory tract infections.

Aquaparamyxovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales. The genus includes two species. Fish serve as the natural hosts for AsaPV, in which the virus may cause proliferative gill inflammation.

Ferlavirus, also referred to as Ophidian paramyxovirus, is a genus of viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales. Reptiles serve as natural hosts. There is currently only one species in this genus to accommodate a single virus, Fer-de-Lance virus (FDLV).

<i>Pneumoviridae</i> Family of viruses

Pneumoviridae is a family of negative-strand RNA viruses in the order Mononegavirales. Humans, cattle, and rodents serve as natural hosts. Respiratory tract infections are associated with member viruses such as human respiratory syncytial virus. There are five species in the family which are divided between the genera Metapneumovirus and Orthopneumovirus. The family used to be considered as a sub-family of Paramyxoviridae, but has been reclassified as of 2016.

Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV) is a double-stranded RNA virus. It is a part of the family Reoviridae, as well as the subfamily Spinareovirinae. As seen in the name, the Mammalian Ortheoreovirus infects numerous mammalian species and vertebrates which serve as natural hosts. Some diseases that occur as a result of this virus or are associated with this virus include mild upper respiratory illness, and gastrointestinal illness. Examples of these are: upper respiratory tract syndromes, gastroenteritis, biliary atresia, obstructive hydrocephalus, jaundice, alopecia, conjunctivitis, and ‘oily hair’ associated with steatorrhea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert A. Lamb</span> British-American virologist (1950–2023)

Robert A. Lamb was a British-American virologist. He was the Kenneth F. Burgess Professor at Northwestern University and since 1991, an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. From 1990 to 2016, he was the John Evans Professor of Molecular and Cellular Biology at Northwestern University.

Bat mumps orthorubulavirus, formerly Bat mumps rubulavirus (BMV), is a member of genus Orthorubulavirus, family Paramyxoviridae, and order Mononegavirales. Paramyxoviridae viruses were first isolated from bats using heminested PCR with degenerate primers. This process was then followed by Sanger sequencing. A specific location of this virus is not known because it was isolated from bats worldwide. Although multiple paramyxoviridae viruses have been isolated worldwide, BMV specifically has not been isolated thus far. However, BMV was detected in African fruit bats, but no infectious form has been isolated to date. It is known that BMV is transmitted through saliva in the respiratory system of bats. While the virus was considered its own species for a few years, phylogenetic analysis has since shown that it is a member of Mumps orthorubulavirus.

References

  1. ↑ Balkema-Buschmann, Anne; et al. (6 June 2018). "Re-organization of the family Paramyxoviridae". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  2. ↑ Rima, Bertus K.; et al. (June 2016). "Adding one (1) new species andrenamingof twelve (12) species in the genus Avulavirus" (PDF). International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 3 May 2019. To rename the following taxon (or taxa): The species names in the genus Avulavirus. Current name Proposed name Avian paramyxovirus 2Avian avulavirus 2
  3. ↑ ICTV 3rd Report Matthews, R. E. F.(1979). Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Thirdreport of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Intervirology 12: 129-296. p217 https://ictv.global/ictv/proposals/ICTV%203rd%20Report.pdf
  4. ↑ 1ICTV 5th Report Francki, R. I. B., Fauquet, C. M., Knudson, D. L. & Brown, F. (eds)(1991). Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Fifthreport of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Archives of Virology Supplementum 2, p244 https://ictv.global/ictv/proposals/ICTV%205th%20Report.pdf
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Warke, Ashwini; Stallknecht, David; Williams, Susan M.; Pritchard, Nikki; Mundt, Egbert (2008). "Comparative study on the pathogenicity and immunogenicity of wild bird isolates of avian paramyxovirus 2, 4, and 6 in chickens". Avian Pathology. 37 (4): 429–434. doi:10.1080/03079450802216645. PMID   18622861. S2CID   3995370.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Other Avian Paramyxovirus Infections - Poultry - Merck Veterinary Manual". Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2017-11-02.
  7. 1 2 3 Anderson, Danielle (2011). The Biology of Paramyxoviruses. Caister Academic Press. ISBN   9781904455851.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kim, Shin-Hee (2012). "Replication,Neurotropism and Pathogenicity of Avian Paramyxovirus Serotypes 1-9 in Chickens and Ducks". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e34927. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...734927K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034927 . PMC   3340391 . PMID   22558104. (Retracted, see doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244178, PMID   33315960,  Retraction Watch . If this is an intentional citation to a retracted paper, please replace {{ retracted |...}} with {{ retracted |...|intentional=yes}}.)
  9. 1 2 3 4 Zarkov, Iv (2015). "Review of infection with avian paramyxovirus serotype 2 (APMV-2) and first results of Bulgaria" (PDF).
  10. 1 2 3 Subbiah, Madhuri; Xiao, Sa; Collins, Peter L.; Samal, Siba K. (2008-10-01). "Complete sequence of the genome of avian paramyxovirus type 2 (strain Yucaipa) and comparison with other paramyxoviruses". Virus Research. 137 (1): 40–48. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2008.05.012. PMC   2700353 . PMID   18603323.
  11. 1 2 3 "Paramyxovirus Entry (PDF Download Available)". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2017-11-02.
  12. ↑ Wang, Xiao-Jia; Bai, Ya-Duo; Zhang, Guo-Zhong; Zhao, Ji-Xun; Wang, Ming; Gao, George F. (April 2005). "Structure and function study of paramyxovirus fusion protein heptad repeat peptides". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 436 (2): 316–322. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2005.02.004. PMC   7094221 . PMID   15797244.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Noton, Sarah L.; Fearns, Rachel (2015-05-01). "Initiation and regulation of paramyxovirus transcription and replication". Virology. 60th Anniversary Issue. 479–480 (Supplement C): 545–554. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2015.01.014. PMC   4424093 . PMID   25683441.
  14. 1 2 Pantua, Homer D.; McGinnes, Lori W.; Peeples, Mark E.; Morrison, Trudy G. (2006-11-01). "Requirements for the Assembly and Release of Newcastle Disease Virus-Like Particles". Journal of Virology. 80 (22): 11062–11073. doi:10.1128/JVI.00726-06. ISSN   0022-538X. PMC   1642154 . PMID   16971425.
  15. ↑ Alexander, D.J (2000). "Newcastle disease and other avian paramyxoviruses" (PDF). Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics). 19 (2): 443–62. PMID   10935273.
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