Lying is strongly discouraged and forbidden by most interpretations of Christianity. Arguments for this are based on various biblical passages, especially "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour", one of the Ten Commandments. Christian theologians disagree as to the exact definition of "lie" and whether it is ever acceptable.
One of the Ten Commandments is "Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour"; for this reason, lying is generally considered as a sin in Christianity. [1] The story of Naboth in 1 Kings 21 provides an example where false witness leads to an unjust outcome. [2] The exact interpretation of the commandment is disputed: [3] [4] "Does the commandment pertain only to court or does it prohibit lying in general? Is it only a prohibition (not to lie in court, not ever to lie) or does it imply a positive injunction (truth-telling in court, truth-telling in general)? If positive, is one enjoined only to truth-telling or to veracity and honesty also?" [3] Other statements in the Bible express a negative view of lying, such as "You shall not steal, nor deal falsely, nor lie to one another" (Leviticus 19:11) and "Cursed is he who does the work of the Lord deceitfully" (Jeremiah 48:10). [5]
In the Hebrew Bible, those who practice lying and deceit are seemingly rewarded for their actions, posing problems for an exegesis that upholds a categorical prohibition. [6] Examples include the Hebrew midwives who lie after Pharaoh commands them to kill all newborn boys (Exodus 1:17–21), and Rahab (Joshua 2:1–7; cf. Hebrews 11:31), an innkeeper who lies to soldiers while hiding spies in her inn. The midwives appear to be rewarded for their actions (God "dealt well with the midwives” and "gave them families"). James 2:25 appears to praise Rahab as an example of good works: "And in the same way was not also Rahab the prostitute justified by works when she received the messengers and sent them out by another way?" [7] [8] In the Book of Judith, Judith deceives Holofernes in order to assassinate him. [9] Both Abraham and Isaac claimed that their wives were their sisters. [10]
Among early Christian writers, there existed differing viewpoints regarding the ethics of deception and dishonesty in certain circumstances. Some argued that lying and dissimulation could be justified for reasons such as saving souls, convincing reluctant candidates to accept ordination, or demonstrating humility by refraining from boasting about one's virtues. Supporters of this position often referred to Paul's statement about becoming all things to all men in order to win them over as a basis for their arguments. [11] [12] [13]
Augustine devoted much attention to lying, which he contended was always wrong. He discussed the topic in four works ( De magistro , De doctrina christiana , De trinitate , and Enchiridion ) and wrote two treatises, De mendacio and Contra mendacium , specifically on the subject of lies. [1] According to Augustine, only four types of falsehood were not lies, because there was no desire to deceive: explanation of someone else's viewpoint, repetition of memorized words, a slip of the tongue, or misspeaking. [14] Augustine distinguished different situations of lying by blameworthiness, but argued that every lie was a sin. [15] The consensus among scholars is that Augustine did not accept any lies as necessary or justified, even to save an innocent life. [16]
However, there was an equally strong patristic tradition that defended lying for a worthwhile cause and considered it necessary or even righteous in some cases. Exponents of this view include Pseudo-Maximus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Hilary of Poitiers, John Cassian, John Chrysostom, Dorotheus of Gaza, Palladius of Antioch, John Climacus, and Paulinus of Nola. [17] This second patristic tradition was summarized by Ambrose of Milan, whose argument, based on scripture, held that Judith's action was meritorious because "she undertook for religion, not love... she served religion... and the fatherland". [1]
Notable Christian theologians who argued that lying was never permissible for Christians include Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin. [18] [19] Both Augustine and Aquinas held that it was always possible to take a correct and blameless action in any circumstance. Some Waldensians weren't strongly opposed to lying if necessary for survival. [20] Defenders of lying in some cases, such as Cassian and H. Tristram Engelhardt, tended to hold the opposite view: that sometimes true moral dilemmas arise. [21]
Martin Luther argued that it is permissible to go as far as swearing an Oath in a lie in his commentary on Matthew. [22] where taking an oath of any sort, even if followed through is deemed impermissible, possibly using Paul's oath (1 Cor. 9:20), or unhonored oaths from the Crusades for his reasoning. [23]
So that some have stretched their conscience so tightly, that one doubts whether one ought to take a solemn oath not to avenge himself when he is set free from prison, or whether we are by an oath to make peace and a treaty with the Turks... As, if it should come to pass, that we would make a treaty and concord with our enemies or the Turks.
— Martin Luther, Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount, [24]
In the twentieth century, Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Reinhold Niebuhr also took a non-absolutist position. [18] In Ethics , Bonhoeffer discusses Kantian ethics and contests the Kantian view of lying, because "Treating truthfulness as a principle leads Kant to the grotesque conclusion that if asked by a murderer whether my friend, whom he was pursuing, had sought refuge in my house, I would have to answer honestly in the affirmative." [25] Although he maintained that one should lie to save his friend in that situation, Bonhoeffer argued that either option incurred guilt. [25] In a later essay, “What Does It Mean to Tell the Truth?”, Bonhoeffer argued that "Lying … is and ought to be understood as something plainly condemnable" and that it did not always incur guilt. [25]
Professor Allen Verhey argued that lying is not always wrong, because "We live the truth not for its own sake, but for God's sake and for the neighbor's sake." [19] The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that lying is always wrong. [26] Different definitions of lying exist, such that Christians do not agree that all deception counts as "lying". Catholic writer and new natural law philosopher Christopher Tollefsen has also argued that lying is never permissible for Christians. [18] [27] In a review of Tollefsen's book, John Skalko stated that this is an unpopular and widely criticized view. [26]
According to a 2016 Pew Research Center survey, 67% of Christians in the United States, including 81% of those who defined themselves as "highly religious", agreed that "Being honest at all times" was "essential" to their Christian identity. [28] According to the 2014 Pew Religious Landscape study in the US, the Christian group that had the highest rate of telling white lies were Black Protestants. [29]
Pelagianism is a Christian theological position that holds that the fall did not taint human nature and that humans by divine grace have free will to achieve human perfection. Pelagius, an ascetic and philosopher from the British Isles, taught that God could not command believers to do the impossible, and therefore it must be possible to satisfy all divine commandments. He also taught that it was unjust to punish one person for the sins of another; therefore, infants are born blameless. Pelagius accepted no excuse for sinful behaviour and taught that all Christians, regardless of their station in life, should live unimpeachable, sinless lives.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer was a German Lutheran pastor, theologian and anti-Nazi dissident who was a key founding member of the Confessing Church. His writings on Christianity's role in the secular world have become widely influential; his 1937 book The Cost of Discipleship is described as a modern classic. Apart from his theological writings, Bonhoeffer was known for his staunch resistance to the Nazi dictatorship, including vocal opposition to Adolf Hitler's euthanasia program and genocidal persecution of the Jews. He was arrested in April 1943 by the Gestapo and imprisoned at Tegel Prison for 1½ years. Later, he was transferred to Flossenbürg concentration camp.
In Christian theology, "legalism" is a pejorative term applied to the idea that "by doing good works or by obeying the law, a person earns and merits salvation." The term has been criticized by certain Christian traditions, such as Conservative Anabaptists who have said that being a disciple of Jesus means being obedient to New Testament commands, and the same is "crucial evidence that an individual has repented, believed, and yielded to Christ."
Divine command theory is a meta-ethical theory which proposes that an action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God. The theory asserts that what is moral is determined by God's commands and that for a person to be moral he is to follow God's commands. Followers of both monotheistic and polytheistic religions in ancient and modern times have often accepted the importance of God's commands in establishing morality.
Christian existentialism is a theo-philosophical movement which takes an existentialist approach to Christian theology. The school of thought is often traced back to the work of the Danish philosopher and theologian Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) who is widely regarded as the father of existentialism.
"The law of Christ" is a New Testament phrase. The related Bible verses are in the Pauline epistles at Galatians 6:2 and parenthetically at 1 Corinthians 9:21.
The Ten Commandments, or the Decalogue, are religious and ethical directives, structured as a covenant document, that, according to the Hebrew Bible, are given by Yahweh to Moses. The text of the Ten Commandments was dynamic in ancient Israel and appears in three markedly distinct versions in the Bible: at Exodus 20:2–17, Deuteronomy 5:6–21, and the "Ritual Decalogue" of Exodus 34:11–26.
Criticism of Christianity has a long history which stretches back to the initial formation of the religion in the Roman Empire. Critics have challenged Christian beliefs and teachings as well as Christian actions, from the Crusades to modern terrorism. The arguments against Christianity include the suppositions that it is a faith of violence, corruption, superstition, polytheism, homophobia, bigotry, pontification, abuses of women's rights and sectarianism.
Christian ethics, also known as moral theology, is a multi-faceted ethical system. It is a virtue ethic, which focuses on building moral character, and a deontological ethic which emphasizes duty. It also incorporates natural law ethics, which is built on the belief that it is the very nature of humans – created in the image of God and capable of morality, cooperation, rationality, discernment and so on – that informs how life should be lived, and that awareness of sin does not require special revelation. Other aspects of Christian ethics, represented by movements such as the social Gospel and liberation theology, may be combined into a fourth area sometimes called prophetic ethics.
Abrahamic religions believe in the Mosaic covenant, also known as the Sinaitic covenant, which refers to a covenant between the Israelite tribes and their God, including their proselytes, not limited to the ten commandments, nor the event when they were given, but including the entirety of laws that their patriarch Moses delivered from God in the five books of Torah.
Christian realism is a political theology in the Christian tradition. It is built on three biblical presumptions: the sinfulness of humanity, the freedom of humanity, and the validity and seriousness of the Great Commandment. The key political concepts of Christian realism are balance of power and political responsibility.
Gender, defined as the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity, and religion, a system of beliefs and practices followed by a community, share a multifaceted relationship that influences both individual and collective identities. The manner in which individuals express and experience their religious convictions is profoundly shaped by gender. Experts from diverse disciplines such as theology, sociology, anthropology, and gender studies have delved into the effects of gender on religious politics and societal standards. At times, the interplay between gender and religion can confine gender roles, but in other instances, it can empower and uphold them. Such insights shed light on the ways religious doctrines and rituals can simultaneously uphold specific gender expectations and offer avenues for gender expression.
Political theology is a term which has been used in discussion of the ways in which theological concepts or ways of thinking relate to politics. The term is often used to denote religious thought about political principled questions. Scholars such as Carl Schmitt, a prominent Nazi jurist and political theorist, who wrote extensively on how to effectively wield political power, used it to denote religious concepts that were secularized and thus became key political concepts. It has often been affiliated with Christianity, but since the 21st century, it has more recently been discussed with relation to other religions.
The Cost of Discipleship is a 1937 book by German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer, considered to be a classic of Christian thought. It is centered on an exposition of the Sermon on the Mount, in which Bonhoeffer spells out what he believes it means to follow Christ. The book was first published in 1937, when the rise of the Nazi regime was underway in Germany. It was against this background that Bonhoeffer's theology of costly discipleship developed, which ultimately led to his death.
Nancy J. Duff is an American professor of theology. Duff worked as the Stephen Colwell Associate Professor of Christian Ethics at Princeton Theological Seminary, where she taught from 1990 until 2020. Duff is also a Presbyterian minister in the PCUSA denomination. She is married to United Methodist Minister David Mertz. She has taught courses on the Decalogue, Biomedical ethics, human sexuality, liturgy and the Christian life, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, James Cone, types of Christian ethics, and vocation in Christian tradition and contemporary life.
"Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor" is one of the Ten Commandments, widely understood as moral imperatives in Judaism and Christianity.
Jesus and the rich young man is an episode in the life of Jesus recounted in the Gospel of Matthew 19:16–30, the Gospel of Mark 10:17–31 and the Gospel of Luke 18:18–30 in the New Testament. It deals with eternal life and the world to come.
In Christianity, the abrogation of Old Covenant laws is the belief that the entire Mosaic or Old Covenant as abrogated in that all of the Mosaic Laws are set aside for the Law of Christ. While most Christian theology reflects the view that at least some Mosaic Laws have been set aside under the New Covenant, the belief in total abrogation of the Old Covenant is a minority belief.
Ethics is an unfinished book by Dietrich Bonhoeffer that was edited and published after his death by Eberhard Bethge in 1949. Bonhoeffer worked on the book in the early 1940s and intended it to be his magnum opus. At the time of writing, he was a double agent; he was working for Abwehr, Nazi Germany's military intelligence organization but was simultaneously involved in the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. The central theme of Ethics is Christlikeness. The arguments in the book are informed by Lutheran Christology and are influenced by Bonhoeffer's participation in the German resistance to Nazism. Ethics is commonly compared to Bonhoeffer's earlier book The Cost of Discipleship, with scholars debating the extent to which Bonhoeffer's views on Christian ethics changed between his writing of the two books. In The Cambridge Companion to Dietrich Bonhoeffer, John W. de Gruchy argues that Ethics evinces more nuance than Bonhoeffer's earlier writings. In 2012, David P. Gushee, director of Mercer University's Center for Theology and Public Life, named Ethics one of the five best books about patriotism.
Joshua 2 is the second chapter of the Book of Joshua in the Hebrew Bible or in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. According to Jewish tradition, the book was attributed to Joshua, with additions by the high priests Eleazar and Phinehas, but modern scholars view it as part of the Deuteronomistic History, which spans the books of Deuteronomy to 2 Kings, attributed to nationalistic and devotedly Yahwistic writers during the time of the reformer Judean king Josiah in 7th century BCE. This chapter focuses on the spies sent by Joshua to Jericho and their encounter with Rahab, a part of a section comprising Joshua 1:1–5:12 about the entry to the land of Canaan.
