Common squirrel monkey

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Common squirrel monkey [1]
Mono ardilla - Saimiri sciureus.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cebidae
Subfamily: Saimiriinae
Genus: Saimiri
Groups included
Saimiri sciureus distribution.svg
Geographic range
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa

Common squirrel monkey is the traditional common name for several small squirrel monkey species native to the tropical areas of South America. The term common squirrel monkey had been used as the common name for Saimiri sciureus before genetic research by Jessica Lynch Alfaro and others indicated S. scuireus covered at least 3 and possibly 4 species: the Guianan squirrel monkey (S. scuireus), Humboldt's squirrel monkey (S. cassiquiarensis) and Collins' squirrel monkey (S. collinsi). The Ecuadorian squirrel monkey (S. cassiquiarensis macrodon), generally regarded as a subspecies of Humboldt's squirrel monkey, had also been sometimes proposed as a separate species that had originally been included within the term "common squirrel monkey."

Range and introductions

Common squirrel monkeys are found primarily in the Amazon Basin. Before the taxon was split, it had been considered to be found within the countries of Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela; [2] a small population has been introduced to Florida and many of the Caribbean Islands. [3] However, taxonomic research in 2009 and 2015 determined that several populations that had been considered S. scuireus were actually separate species: [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

The Ecuadorian squirrel monkey, S. cassiquiarensis macrodon, has also sometimes been regarded as a separate species. [4]

As a result of these populations no longer being considered S. scuireus, the range of S. scuireus is now limited to Brazil and the Guianas. [4] [5]

A group of free-ranging individuals was spotted and photographed in 2009 at the Tijuca Forest in Rio de Janeiro – possibly the result of an illegal release or of an escape from the pet trade; [9] by 2010, the squirrel monkey had begun to be considered as an invasive species in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest, and concerns were expressed about its role as a predator of eggs of endangered bird species. [10] The common squirrel monkey prefers to live in the middle canopy, but occasionally comes to the ground or goes up into the high canopy. They like vegetation which provides good cover from birds of prey in the rainforest, savannah, mangroves, or marshlands.

At least five populations of common squirrel monkeys have existed in Florida since the 1960s, if not earlier. [11] Common squirrel monkeys have been established at Silver Springs since at least the late 1960s; rhesus macaques were established in the area by 1938, but there is no firm information on when the squirrel monkeys were released. [12] In the 1960s, a colony of twelve to fifteen common squirrel monkeys was noted residing in a hammock of trees by the springs; they migrated downstream to the Ocklawaha River by 1975. Another population, derived from two pairs released in the 1960s, lives on the Bartlett Estate in Broward County; they numbered 43 in 1988. In 1976, 15 squirrel monkeys escaped from the Tropic Wonderland attraction in Titusville, Florida; their descendants have since become established in the area. In the 1980s, 500 and 1000 common squirrel monkeys remained in the shuttered Masterpiece Gardens park in Polk County, persisting despite efforts to capture them. Additionally, a "semi-free-ranging" population has existed at Monkey Jungle in Goulds in Miami-Dade County since 1960. [11]

Biology and behavior

Diet

Common squirrel monkeys are considered both frugivorous and insectivorous, preferring berry-like fruit on branches. When in captivity, squirrel monkeys are fed fruits such as apples, oranges, grapes, and bananas. They also consume a variety of vegetables that include lettuce, celery, and onions. [13] Squirrel monkeys also look for insects and small vertebrates, such as tree frogs. It obtains a majority of its water from the foods eaten, and also obtains water from holes in trees and puddles on the ground. When fruit is scarce, the common squirrel monkey drinks nectar.

The amount of time squirrel monkeys spend foraging depends on the type of food. When bigger fruits and easy access occur, they do not spend much time foraging. Otherwise, they dedicate a considerable amount of time to looking for their foods. Foraging also keeps the monkeys entertained and active. Oftentimes when they are captive, they easily become bored as the food is more easily obtained. [13]

Social behavior

Common squirrel monkeys are polygamous with a multiple-male, multiple-female group structure. [14] Most social interactions in S. sciureus groups occur within the various age/sex classes, [15] with the division of classes being between adult male categories, mother-infant categories, and juvenile categories. [14] The core of the group is made up of the adult females and their young. [16] As a result of the natural attraction each class has to the adult females, the different age/sex classes come together as one social group. [15] Though juveniles play and jump around an appreciable amount during phases of high activity, they usually stay close to the adult females. [15] In terms of the males' level of attraction to the adult females, the phase of the yearly reproductive cycle determines their distance from the adult females. [15] Overall, interactions between the various age/sex classes are most frequently directed to adult females. [15] The division of age/sex classes among S. sciureus is not so strictly defined because the degree of segregation between gender can vary. That is, those subspecies which have a high degree of sexual dimorphism are sexually segregated, such that the males and females of that subspecies interact less with each other than do those of subspecies that are not very sexually dimorphic and thus sexually integrated. [17]

Seasonal reproduction [14] plays a major role in the social behavior of common squirrel monkeys, where the frequency of between-sex interactions of the males and females differs between the birth season and the mating season. [18] Adult males are generally socially inactive during the birth season and spend their time travelling and foraging at a distance from the group. [18] During the mating season, though, the adult males become fatter, excited, aggressive, and highly vocal and spend most of their time engaging in dominance interactions among themselves or following and approaching the adult females in estrus, in hopes of being able to mate with them. [15] Males can increase their chances at copulating with receptive females by approaching them quietly. [15] Nonreceptive females, though, respond aggressively to any male approach and threaten and chase the males away, usually with the help of surrounding females. [15] Overall, intersexual interaction among common squirrel monkeys greatly increases during the mating season. [19]

Common squirrel monkey infants develop rapidly. They become fairly independent between five and eight months of age and spend only a small percentage of the day with their mothers. Also at this age range, the infants can find food on their own. [18] Infants are active members of the social group, climbing, running, exploring, and frequently making contact with adult members of the group. [18] Most adult-infant interactions are initiated by infants towards adult females that are not their mothers. [18] Adults generally respond to the infants calmly, but some adults may respond with antagonism. [18] Infants rank the lowest in the group. [20]

Many other aspects of common squirrel monkey social behavior, such as dominance relationships, coalitions, dispersal patterns, and aggression, stem from the feeding ecology of the animals. [20] Feeding ecology directly affects the females of the group which in turn affects the behavior of the males in the group. [21] The feeding patches for common squirrel monkeys are very small and dense, which makes it possible for an individual with the greatest capability of winning a fight, if one were to occur, to monopolize access to any patch. [20] Within-group competition among common squirrel monkey groups is extremely high, and between-group competition is moderate to high. [20] Coalition formation is not as stable as would be expected among the females of the group because considering their small and dense feeding patches, common squirrel monkey females with the greatest capability of winning a fight would benefit more if they were to form alliances to gain control of a patch and then not share the patch once in control of it. [20]

Once sexually mature, all males emigrate from their natal groups. After leaving, they may either become solitary, a peripheral of another troop, join another mixed-sex troop, or attend a tolerant troop of another monkey species. If they become a peripheral of another group, the male squirrel monkey chooses one troop and keeps a certain distance away from them while still trying to follow them. These males are the less dominant ones. A few male squirrel monkeys have been observed interacting with groups of other monkey species. Some females may leave their natal groups, as well, although they tend to be more philopatric. If females do leave their natal groups, they do it after becoming sexually mature. Often, they migrate before or right after a mating season. Due to this, they might end up leaving their group when they are pregnant or with their immature offspring. [22]

Males are typically dominant to females, but females still have a high status in the group. [14] and are capable of forming coalitions against dominant males. [23] Rarely do males form coalitions even if a group of males keeps their distance from the main group or are solitary. Several theories suggest that one of the reasons that male squirrel monkeys do not form coalitions is because of the lack of kinship due to emigration. Coalitions may also increase mortality risks within the group since males tend to be aggressive to each other. [22]

Genital display among males is an important social signal in relation to group hierarchy; it is derived from sexual behavior, but is used for social communication. [24] It involves the animal spreading his thighs and having an erect penis. [24] Dominant males display to submissive males to emphasize their higher status. [16] The dominant males direct their action to the face of the passive males, and the act can be done with the displayer leaning over the passive monkey or the displayer doing the action from a distance in a more upright position. [24] This form of dominance interaction, as well as several types of aggression, increase during the mating season when males want to emphasize their rank and strength and gain more control over other males in relation to access to females. [15] Genital displays may also define male-male alliances when the males participate in "joint genital displays". [14]

Habits

Common squirrel monkeys are diurnal. They are usually quiet, but will utter loud cries when alarmed. They use different types of calls for specific situations. Some of their common call types include caws, bawls, and shrieks. Squirrel monkeys utter caws mostly when they are trying to defend a territory. They may use bawls prior to a fight, as well as after one. Shrieks are mainly heard when the monkeys are fighting for dominance. Squirrel monkeys' most common calls are determined by their genetics. Squirrel monkeys that have been isolated since infancy are able to produce the same calls as those that have been exposed to the calls. Few variations exist between the frequencies of the calls of infants that were raised differently. A squirrel monkey that was deaf since birth was also able to produce the same calls, proving that the calls come from their genes. [25] It is arboreal, but sometimes it comes down to the ground. Bands or troops can number from 12-100. Occasionally, troops as large as 500 have been seen in undisturbed forests.

Conservation status

Prior to the taxon being splits, common squirrel monkeys were rated as "least concern" by IUCN, [2] but subject to being harmed by deforestation. They have also been captured extensively for the pet trade and for medical research.

As pets

Due to their inquisitive and playful nature, these common squirrel monkeys are popular pets. They require a large amount of space and food.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cebidae</span> Family of New World monkeys

The Cebidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. These species are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barbary macaque</span> Species of Old World monkey

The Barbary macaque, also known as Barbary ape, is a macaque species native to the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco, along with a small introduced population in Gibraltar. It is the type species of the genus Macaca. The species is of particular interest because males play an atypical role in rearing young. Because of uncertain paternity, males are integral to raising all infants. Generally, Barbary macaques of both sexes and all ages contribute in alloparental care of young.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panamanian white-faced capuchin</span> Species of primate

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin, also known as the Panamanian white-headed capuchin or Central American white-faced capuchin, is a medium-sized New World monkey of the family Cebidae, subfamily Cebinae. Native to the forests of Central America, the white-faced capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen.

<i>Semnopithecus</i> Genus of Old World monkeys

Semnopithecus is a genus of Old World monkeys native to the Indian subcontinent, with all species with the exception of two being commonly known as gray langurs. Traditionally only the species Semnopithecus entellus was recognized, but since about 2001 additional species have been recognized. The taxonomy has been in flux, but currently eight species are recognized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pygmy marmoset</span> Genus of monkey

Pygmy marmosets are two species of small New World monkeys in the genus Cebuella. They are native to rainforests of the western Amazon Basin in South America. These primates are notable for being the smallest monkeys in the world, at just over 100 g (3.5 oz). They are generally found in evergreen and river-edge forests and are gum-feeding specialists, or gummivores.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chacma baboon</span> Species of baboon from the Old World monkey family

The chacma baboon, also known as the Cape baboon, is, like all other baboons, from the Old World monkey family. It is one of the largest of all monkeys. Located primarily in southern Africa, the chacma baboon has a wide variety of social behaviours, including a dominance hierarchy, collective foraging, adoption of young by females, and friendship pairings. These behaviors form parts of a complex evolutionary ecology. In general, the species is not threatened, but human population pressure has increased contact between humans and baboons. Hunting, trapping, and accidents kill or remove many baboons from the wild, thereby reducing baboon numbers and disrupting their social structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Squirrel monkey</span> Genus of mammals belonging to the capuchin and squirrel monkey family of primates

Squirrel monkeys are New World monkeys of the genus Saimiri. Saimiri is the only genus in the subfamily Saimirinae. The name of the genus is of Tupi origin and was also used as an English name by early researchers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sooty mangabey</span> Species of mammal

The sooty mangabey is an Old World monkey found in forests from Senegal in a margin along the coast down to the Ivory Coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black squirrel monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The black squirrel monkey, also known as the blackish squirrel monkey or black-headed squirrel monkey, is a small New World primate, endemic to the central Amazon in Brazil. It largely resembles the female of the far more common Bolivian squirrel monkey, though the latter lacks the black central back.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-capped squirrel monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The black-capped squirrel monkey is a species of New-World monkey native to the upper Amazon basin in Bolivia, western Brazil and eastern Peru. They weigh between 365 and 1,135 g and measure, from the head to the base of the tail, between 225 and 370 mm. Black-capped squirrel monkeys are primarily tree-dwelling and are found in both native and plantation forests as well as some farmed areas near running water. Their diet is omnivorous and mostly consists of flowers, fruit, leaves, nuts, seeds, insects, arachnids, eggs and small vertebrates. They mostly live in female-dominated troops of around 40 to 75 monkeys, with males having been observed to disperse to live in all-male troops after reaching sexual maturation. Their current conservation status according to the IUCN is 'Least Concern'. The species belongs to the genus Saimiri and has two subspecies, S. b. boliviensis and S. b. peruviensis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-eared titi monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The white-eared titi monkey also known as the Bolivian titi or Bolivian gray titi, is a species of titi monkey, a type of New World monkey, from eastern Bolivia and an area of western Brazil. The species has a range that extends east from the Manique River in Beni Department, Bolivia to southern Rondônia in Brazil. The southern end of its range includes forests around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central American squirrel monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The Central American squirrel monkey, also known as the red-backed squirrel monkey, is a squirrel monkey species from the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and Panama. It is restricted to the northwestern tip of Panama near the border with Costa Rica, and the central and southern Pacific coast of Costa Rica, primarily in Manuel Antonio and Corcovado National Parks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden snub-nosed monkey</span> Species of Old World monkey

The golden snub-nosed monkey is an Old World monkey in the subfamily Colobinae. It is endemic to a small area in temperate, mountainous forests of central and Southwest China. They inhabit these mountainous forests of Southwestern China at elevations of 1,500–3,400 m (4,900–11,200 ft) above sea level. The Chinese name is Sichuan golden hair monkey (四川金丝猴). It is also widely referred to as the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey. Of the three species of snub-nosed monkeys in China, the golden snub-nosed monkey is the most widely distributed throughout China.

Allomothering, allomaternal infant care/handling, or non-maternal infant care/handling is performed by any group member other than the mother. Alloparental care is provided by group members other than the genetic father or the mother and thus is distinguished from parental care. Both are widespread phenomena among social insects, birds and mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates</span> Sexual differences in primates

Sexual dimorphism describes the morphological, physiological, and behavioral differences between males and females of the same species. Most primates are sexually dimorphic for different biological characteristics, such as body size, canine tooth size, craniofacial structure, skeletal dimensions, pelage color and markings, and vocalization. However, such sex differences are primarily limited to the anthropoid primates; most of the strepsirrhine primates and tarsiers are monomorphic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-crowned Central American squirrel monkey</span> Subspecies of New World monkey

The black-crowned Central American squirrel monkey is a subspecies of the Central American squirrel monkey. Its range is restricted to the Pacific coast of western Panama to the western portion of the Chiriquí Province and of southern Costa Rica, south of the Rio Grande de Terraba, including the Osa Peninsula. It is the subspecies of Central American squirrel monkey seen in Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica. Its type locality is David, Panama, but its range apparently no longer extends that far east.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primate sociality</span>

Primate sociality is an area of primatology that aims to study the interactions between three main elements of a primate social network: the social organisation, the social structure and the mating system. The intersection of these three structures describe the socially complex behaviours and relationships occurring among adult males and females of a particular species. Cohesion and stability of groups are maintained through a confluence of factors, including: kinship, willingness to cooperate, frequency of agonistic behaviour, or varying intensities of dominance structures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humboldt's squirrel monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

Humboldt's squirrel monkey is a species of squirrel monkey from Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. It had previously been considered a subspecies of the common squirrel monkey, S. scuireus, but was elevated to full species status based on a genetic study by Carretero-Pinzón in 2009. A genetic study by Jessica Lynch Alfaro, et al indicated that the Ecuadorian squirrel monkey may be synonymous with Saimiri cassiquiarensis. As of 2018, the Ecuadorian squirrel monkey is generally regarded as a subspecies of Humboldt's squirrel monkey, S. cassiquiarensis macrodon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guianan squirrel monkey</span> Species of New World monkey

The Guianan squirrel monkey is a species of squirrel monkey from Guiana, Venezuela and Brazil. S. sciureus formerly applied to Humboldt's squirrel monkey and Collins' squirrel monkey, but genetic research in 2009 and 2015 revealed that these are distinct species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecuadorian squirrel monkey</span> Subspecies of New World monkey

The Ecuadorian squirrel monkey is a type of squirrel monkey. It had been considered a subspecies of the Guianan squirrel monkey, Saimiri sciureus, but was elevated to a full species, S. macrodon, based on a 2009 study by Carretero-Pinzón, et al. Based on subsequent genetic research by Jessica Lynch Alfaro, et al it was again reclassified as a subspecies of Humboldt's squirrel monkey.

References

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  9. ↑ O Globo, 4 May 2009, Ancelmo Gois column
  10. ↑ "Espécies invasoras estão entre as maiores vilãs da biodiversidade". O Globo (in Portuguese). 25 May 2010.
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  12. ↑ Simberloff, Daniel; Schmitz, D.C.; Brown, T.C. (1997). Strangers in Paradise: Impact and Management of Nonindigenous Species in Florida. Island Press. pp. 161–164. ISBN   1-55963-430-8 . Retrieved 8 September 2015.
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