Gracile capuchin monkey

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Gracile capuchin monkey [1]
Capuchin Costa Rica.jpg
Panamanian white-headed capuchin (Cebus imitator)
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cebidae
Subfamily: Cebinae
Genus: Cebus
Erxleben, 1777
Type species
Simia capucina [2]
Species

Cebus aequatorialis
Cebus albifrons
Cebus brunneus
Cebus capucinus
Cebus castaneus
Cebus cesare
Cebus cuscinus
Cebus imitator
Cebus kaapori
Cebus leucocephalus
Cebus malitiosus
Cebus olivaceus
Cebus trinitatis
Cebus unicolor
Cebus versicolor
Cebus yuracus

Contents

Gracile capuchin monkeys are capuchin monkeys in the genus Cebus. At one time all capuchin monkeys were included within the genus Cebus. In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. proposed splitting the genus between the robust capuchin monkeys, such as the tufted capuchin, and the gracile capuchins. [1] The gracile capuchins retain the genus name Cebus, while the robust species have been transferred to Sapajus . [1] [3]

Taxonomy

Following Groves (2005), taxa within the genus Cebus include: [4]

Subsequent revisions have split some of these into additional species: [5]

The placement of the Trinidad white-fronted capuchin is controversial; the American Society of Mammalogists classifies it as conspecific with C. brunneus based on a 2012 study later found to be flawed, while the IUCN Red List classifies it as a distinct species (Cebus triniatis) due to debate over the aforementioned study, and the ITIS classifies it as a subspecies of C. albifrons, also due to debate over the aforementioned study. [6] [7] [8] [9]

Taxonomic history

Philip Hershkovitz and William Charles Osman Hill published taxonomies of the capuchin monkeys in 1949 and 1960, respectively. [1] These taxonomies established four species of capuchin monkey in the genus Cebus. One of those species, Cebus apella , is a robust capuchin and is now included in the genus Sapajus. The other three Cebus species included in that taxonomy were the gracile capuchin species Cebus albifrons, Cebus nigrivittatus and the type species Cebus capucinus. [3] Cebus nigrivittatus was subsequently renamed Cebus olivaceus. [3] [10] Cebus kaapori had been considered a subspecies of C. olivaceus but Groves (2001 and 2005) and Silva (2001) regarded it as a separate species. [11]

Evolutionary history

Sapajus skull portrait.JPG
Cebus skull lateral view 3.JPG
Top: Sapajus nigritus skull, a robust capuchin monkey. Bottom: Cebus olivaceus , a gracile capuchin monkey.

The gracile capuchins, like all capuchins, are members of the family Cebidae, which also includes the squirrel monkeys. The evolution of the squirrel monkeys and capuchin monkeys is believed to have diverged about 13 million years ago. [1] According to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago. [1] [3] Lynch Alfaro suspects that the divergence was triggered by the creation of the Amazon River, which separated the monkeys in the Amazon north of the Amazon River, which evolved into the gracile capuchins, from those in the Atlantic Forest south of the river, which evolved into the robust capuchins. [1] [3]

Morphology

Gracile capuchins have longer limbs relative to their body size compared with robust capuchins. [1] Gracile capuchins also have rounder skulls and other differences in skull morphology. [1] Gracile capuchins lack certain adaptations for opening hard nuts which robust capuchins have. [1] These include differences in the teeth and jaws, and the lack of a sagittal crest. [1] Exterior differences include the fact that, although some females have tufts on their head (Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin and Guianan weeper capuchin), no male gracile capuchin has tufts, while all robust capuchins have tufts. [1] Also, no gracile capuchins have beards. [1]

Distribution

Gracile capuchin monkeys have a wide range over Central America and north and north-west South America. The Panamanian white-headed capuchin is the most northern species, occurring in Central America from Honduras to Panama. [5] The Colombian white-headed capuchin also has a northern distribution in Colombia and Ecuador west of the Andes. [5] The white-fronted capuchin is found over large portions of Colombia, Peru and western Brazil, as well as into southern Venezuela and northern Bolivia. [12] The weeper capuchin is found over much of Venezuela and over The Guianas, as well as part of northern Brazil. [10] The Kaapori capuchin has a range that is disjoint from the other gracile capuchins, living in northern Brazil within the states of Pará and Maranhão. [11] The only species to inhabit the Caribbean islands is the Trinidad white-fronted capuchin.

Behaviour

Tool use

Some gracile capuchins are known to use tools. These include white-headed capuchins rubbing secretions from leaves over their bodies, using leaves as gloves when rubbing fruit or caterpillar secretions and using tools as a probe. [1] [13] White-fronted capuchins have been observed using leaves as a cup to drink water. [13]

Mating systems

Male weaponry

Intrasexual selection, or male-male competition, occurs when males invoke contests in order to gain the opportunity to reproduce with a female and maximize their reproductive success. [14] Often males are adorned with weaponry, which can be used in order to increase their chances of winning contests for possible mates. [15] In the genus Cebus, there is a large amount of dimorphism in canine size between males and females. [15] Canines are hypothesized to be larger in males because canine dimorphism is generally correlated to male-male competition. [15] In the wedge-capped capuchin there is a larger amount of canine dimorphism compared to the white-faced capuchin and the white-fronted capuchin. [15] The difference in canine dimorphism between these species can be correlated to the differences in social structure of these three groups. The alpha male of the wedge-capped capuchin tends to monopolize mating, therefore engaging in more male-male competition, while in the white-faced capuchin and in the white-fronted capuchin the alpha male does not monopolize mating and allows subordinate males to mate with females. [15] While not much is known about the Kaapori capuchin, due to its low population size, it is likely it would possess more canine dimorphism, like the wedge-capped capuchin, because of its similar social structure with a monopolizing alpha male and peripheral subordinate males. [16]

Direct and indirect female benefits

If a female is presented an opportunity to copulate with a male she will evaluate both the costs and benefits of that male. Females can obtain direct benefits from males she mates with, where the female gains an instant benefit from the male to herself. [17] Direct benefits that would apply to females of the genus Cebus would include; vigilance from males, [18] protection from predators and conspecifics, [17] and increased resources. [19] Females can also benefit indirectly from males, in the form of phenotypic and genotypic benefits to her offspring [20] as well as male protection of those offspring. [17] Alpha males are more fit, and therefore more likely, to provide direct and indirect benefits to the female compared to other subordinate males. [17] In the white-faced capuchin the alpha male fathers 70-90% of the offspring produced by females in his group. [17] It is hypothesized that females are mating with alpha males while they are ovulating and then mating with subordinate males after they are no longer conceptive. [17] Some female primates, like in the white-fronted capuchin, will mate will subordinate males while they are no longer conceptive in order to decrease the amount of resource competition and increase the amount of male protection for her offspring. [18]

Parental care

Capuchin infants are born in an altricial state, which means they need a lot of parental care in order to survive. [21] The majority of parental care in the genus Cebus is provided by the mother, but in the case of the wedge-capped capuchin, parental care is also provided by other conspecific females; this type of care is referred to as allomaternal care. [21] In the wedge-capped capuchin, the mother will provide the infant care for the first three months, however for the next three months the infant relies on the care of other females. [21] In agreement with kin selection theory, kin of the mother are more likely to provide care to the infant compared to other females in the group; siblings were four times as likely to provide infant care compared to other group females. [21] Male parental care is rare in the genus Cebus, only in the white-headed capuchin is there some interaction between males and offspring. [22] In white-headed capuchins males will often investigate, or at least tolerate, their offspring. [22] Alpha males are also more likely to interact with their offspring than subordinate males. [22]

Conservation status

All gracile capuchin species except the Kaapori capuchin are rated as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. [23] [10] [12] The Kaapori capuchin is rated as critically endangered. [11]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cebidae</span> Family of New World monkeys

The Cebidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. These species are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panamanian white-faced capuchin</span> Species of primate

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin, also known as the Panamanian white-headed capuchin or Central American white-faced capuchin, is a medium-sized New World monkey of the family Cebidae, subfamily Cebinae. Native to the forests of Central America, the white-faced capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capuchin monkey</span> Subfamily of New World monkeys

The capuchin monkeys are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the "organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical forests in Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. In Central America, where they are called white-faced monkeys ("carablanca"), they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tufted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The tufted capuchin, also known as brown capuchin, black-capped capuchin, or pin monkey is a New World primate from South America and the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Margarita. As traditionally defined, it is one of the most widespread primates in the Neotropics, but it has recently been recommended considering the black-striped, black and golden-bellied capuchins as separate species in a new genus, thereby effectively limiting the tufted capuchin to the Amazon basin and nearby regions. However, the large-headed capuchin, previously defined as a distinct species, has been reclassified as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin, expanding its range east to Peru & Ecuador and south to Bolivia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaapori capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The Kaapori capuchin, also known as the Ka'apor capuchin, is a species of frugivorous, gracile capuchin endemic to the Brazilian Amazon. Their geographical home range is relatively small and is within the most densely populated region of the Amazon. With the strong human presence nearby,C. kaapori has had to deal with very large amounts of disturbances to their habitat and is one of the most endangered of the neotropical primates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wedge-capped capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The wedge-capped capuchin or Guianan weeper capuchin is a capuchin monkey from South America. It is found in northern Brazil, Guyana and Venezuela. Cebus olivaceus is known to dwell in tall, primary forest and travel over long distances during the day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The black capuchin, also known as the black-horned capuchin, is a capuchin monkey from the Atlantic Forest in south-eastern Brazil and far north-eastern Argentina. Historically, it was included as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blond capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The blond capuchin is a species of capuchin monkey endemic to northeastern Brazil. This endangered species was rediscovered in 2006. It can live in exceptionally large groups of over 150 individuals, and like other capuchin species, exhibits a complex and high level of sociality. It is threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture, primarily sugarcane fields. In many cases this has caused sugarcane to make up a large portion of their diet, which would otherwise consist of mostly fruit and small animals. The blond capuchin is known to inhabit both the Atlantic forest and Caatinga biomes, although the habitation of the Caatinga may be a recent choice caused by human encroachment into its former habitats. Like other primate species, the blond capuchin is also threatened by poaching and capture for the illegal pet trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robust capuchin monkey</span> Genus of mammals belonging to the capuchin and squirrel monkey family of primates

Robust capuchin monkeys are capuchin monkeys in the genus Sapajus. Formerly, all capuchin monkeys were placed in the genus Cebus. Sapajus was erected in 2012 by Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. to differentiate the robust (tufted) capuchin monkeys from the gracile capuchin monkeys, which remain in Cebus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-faced capuchin</span> Common name for several monkey species

White-faced capuchin, or white headed capuchin, can refer to either of two species of gracile capuchin monkey:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crested capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The crested capuchin or robust tufted capuchin is a species of robust capuchin monkey. It is endemic to Brazil. It was formerly considered a subspecies of the black capuchin but is now considered by some to be a separate species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colombian white-faced capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The Colombian white-faced capuchin, also known as the Colombian white-headed capuchin or Colombian white-throated capuchin, is a medium-sized New World monkey of the family Cebidae, subfamily Cebinae. It is native to the extreme eastern portion of Panama and the extreme north-western portion of South America in western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey. It is found in Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, and potentially the island of Trinidad.

The Río Cesar white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from the Río Cesar Valley in northern Colombia. It had previously been considered a subspecies of the white-fronted capuchin. Genetic analysis by Jean Boubli in 2012 revealed that the Río Cesar white-fronted capuchin is actually more closely related to the Colombian white-faced capuchin than it is to C. albifrons. Some authors regard it to be a subspecies of the varied white-fronted capuchin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown weeper capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The brown weeper capuchin or Venezuelan brown capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey endemic to Venezuela, although some sources also consider it to occur on Trinidad.

The Trinidad white-fronted capuchin is a subspecies or species of gracile capuchin monkey. It is found on the island of Trinidad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Santa Marta white-fronted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The Santa Marta white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from Colombia. It was formerly considered a subspecies of the Cebus albifrons or a synonym of the Colombian white-faced capuchin, but Mittermeier and Rylands elevated it to a species in 2013, following previous work by Rylands, Hershkovitz, Cooper and Hernandez-Camacho. The IUCN follows this taxonomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marañón white-fronted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The Marañón white-fronted capuchin also or known as Peruvian white-fronted capuchin or Andean white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from the upper Amazon Basin. It had been regarded as synonymous with the shock-headed capuchin, which was then considered a subspecies of Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin, but it was classified as a separate species by Mittermeier and Rylands based on genetic studies by Boubli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shock-headed capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The shock-headed capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from Bolivia and Peru. It was previously classified as a subspecies of the Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin, but in 2013 Mittermeier and Rylands elevated it to a separate species, following genetic studies by Boubli et al. in 2012 and Lynch Alfaro et al. in 2010.

Spix's white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey. It had previously been classified as a subspecies of the Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin. Following genetic studies by Boubli, et al, Mittermeier and Ryland elevated it to a full species.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Silva, j.; Rylands, A.B. (2012). "How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 1–14. doi:10.1002/ajp.22007. PMID   22328205. S2CID   18840598.
  2. ↑ Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; et al. (2011). "Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys" (PDF). Journal of Biogeography. 39 (2): 272–288. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x. S2CID   13791283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-26.
  4. ↑ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   0-801-88221-4. OCLC   62265494.
  5. 1 2 3 Mittermeier, Russell A.& Rylands, Anthony B. (2013). Mittermeier, Russell A.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Wilson, Don E. (eds.). Handbook of the Mammals of the World: Volume 3, Primates. Lynx. pp. 407–413. ISBN   978-8496553897.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Boubli, Jean P.; et al. (2012). "Cebus Phylogenetic Relationships: A Preliminary Reassessment of the Diversity of the Untufted Capuchin Monkeys" (PDF). American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 1–13. doi:10.1002/ajp.21998. PMID   22311697. S2CID   12171529. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2018-12-30.
  7. ↑ Seyjagat, J.; Biptah, N.; Ramsubage, S.; Lynch Alfaro, J.W. (2021). "Cebus trinitatis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T4085A115560059. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T4085A115560059.en . Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  8. ↑ "ITIS - Report: Cebus albifrons". www.itis.gov. Retrieved 2021-12-07.
  9. ↑ "Explore the Database". www.mammaldiversity.org. Retrieved 2021-12-07.
  10. 1 2 3 Boubli, J.P.; Urbani, B.; Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Laroque, P.O. (2021). "Cebus olivaceus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T81384371A191708662. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T81384371A191708662.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  11. 1 2 3 Kierulff, M.C.M. & de Oliveira, M.M. (2008). "Cebus kaapori". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2008: e.T40019A10303725. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T40019A10303725.en .
  12. 1 2 Link, A.; Boubli, J.P.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Urbani, B.; Ravetta, A.L.; Guzmán-Caro, D.C.; Muniz, C.C.; Lynch Alfaro, J.W. (2021). "Cebus albifrons". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T39951A191703935. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T39951A191703935.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  13. 1 2 Garber, P.A.; Gomez, D.F. & Bicca-Marques, J.C. (2011). "Experimental Field Study of Problem-Solving Using Tools in Free-Ranging Capuchins (Sapajus nigritus, formerly Cebus nigritus)". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 344–58. doi:10.1002/ajp.20957. PMID   21538454. S2CID   39363765 . Retrieved 2012-03-18.
  14. ↑ Wiley, R. Haven; Poston, Joe (1996). "Perspective: Indirect Mate Choice, Competition for Mates, and Coevolution of the Sexes". Evolution. 50 (4): 1371–1381. doi:10.2307/2410875. JSTOR   2410875. PMID   28565703.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Masterson, Thomas (2003). "Canine Dimorphism and Interspecific Canine Form in Cebus". International Journal of Primatology. 24: 159–178. doi:10.1023/A:1021406831019. S2CID   22642329.
  16. ↑ Fragaszy, Dorothy (2004). The Complete Capuchin: The Biology of the Genus Cebus. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 406.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fisher, Maryanne L.; Garcia, Justin R.; Chang, Rosemarie Sokol (2013-03-28). Evolution's empress : Darwinian perspectives on the nature of women. Fisher, Maryanne., Garcia, Justin R., 1985-, Chang, Rosemarie Sokol. Oxford. ISBN   9780199892747. OCLC   859536355.
  18. 1 2 van Schaik, C. P.; Noordwijk, M. A. van (1989). "The Special Role of Male Cebus Monkeys in Predation Avoidance and Its Effect on Group Composition". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 24 (5): 265–276. doi:10.1007/BF00290902. JSTOR   4600275. S2CID   30473544.
  19. ↑ O'Brien, Timothy G. (1991). "Female-male social interactions in wedge-capped capuchin monkeys: benefits and costs of group living". Animal Behaviour. 41 (4): 555–567. doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80896-6. S2CID   53202962.
  20. ↑ West-Eberhard, Mary Jane (1979). "Sexual Selection, Social Competition, and Evolution". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 123 (4): 222–234. JSTOR   986582.
  21. 1 2 3 4 O'Brien, Timothy G.; Robinson, John G. (1991). "Allomaternal Care by Female Wedge-Capped Capuchin Monkeys: Effects of Age, Rank and Relatedness". Behaviour. 119 (1/2): 30–50. doi:10.1163/156853991X00355. JSTOR   4534974.
  22. 1 2 3 Sargeant, Elizabeth J.; Wikberg, Eva C.; Kawamura, Shoji; Jack, Katharine M.; Fedigan, Linda M. (2016-06-01). "Paternal kin recognition and infant care in white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)". American Journal of Primatology. 78 (6): 659–668. doi:10.1002/ajp.22530. ISSN   1098-2345. PMID   26815856. S2CID   3802355.
  23. ↑ de la Torre, S.; Moscoso, P.; Méndez-Carvajal, P.G.; Rosales-Meda, M.; Palacios, E.; Link, A.; Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Mittermeier, R.A. (2021). "Cebus capucinus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T81257277A191708164. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T81257277A191708164.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
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