Robust capuchin monkey

Last updated

Robust capuchin monkey [1]
Temporal range: Late Miocene to present
Robust Tufted Capuchins.jpg
Four species of robust capuchins, from top to bottom, from left to right: S. flavius , S. xanthosternos , S. nigritus , S. libidinosus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cebidae
Subfamily: Cebinae
Genus: Sapajus
Kerr, 1792
Type species
Simia apella
Species
Sapajus range.png
Range of robust capuchin monkeys

  S. apella  S. cay  S. flavius  S. libidinosus  S. macrocephalus  S. nigritus  S. robustus  S. xanthosternos

Contents

Robust capuchin monkeys are capuchin monkeys in the genus Sapajus. Formerly, all capuchin monkeys were placed in the genus Cebus . Sapajus was erected in 2012 by Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. to differentiate the robust (tufted) capuchin monkeys (formerly the C. apella group) from the gracile capuchin monkeys (formerly the C. capucinus group), which remain in Cebus. [1] [2]

Taxonomy

Based on the species and subspecies proposed by Groves in 2001 and 2005, robust capuchin monkey taxa include: [2] [3]

S. flavius was only rediscovered in 2006. [2] The specific species and subspecies within Sapajus are not universally agreed upon. [1] [4] For example, Silva (2001) proposed a slightly different species and subspecies split in which, for example Azara's capuchun, Sapajus libidinosus paraguayanus, is considered a separate species, Sapajus cay, as are the large-headed capuchin and the crested capuchin. [1] [4]

Taxonomic history

Formerly, the large-headed capuchin was considered a subspecies of S. apella. Large-headed capuchin (Sapajus macrocephalus) portrait.jpg
Formerly, the large-headed capuchin was considered a subspecies of S. apella .

Philip Hershkovitz and William Charles Osman Hill published taxonomies of the capuchin monkeys in 1949 and 1960, respectively. [1] These taxonomies included all robust capuchins, described then as the tufted group, in the single species Cebus apella, while three gracile (untufted) capuchin species were recognized. [1] Over time, the original C. apella was split into the additional species of robust capuchin monkeys recognized today. In 2001, Silva published a study in which he found greater genetic diversity among robust capuchins than among gracile capuchins. [1] Silva's study also concluded that due to the differences between robust and gracile capuchins, the two groups should at least be placed in separate subgenera within the genus Cebus, offering Sapajus as the subgenus name for robust capuchins. [1] After further studies of the morphology and genetics of the capuchin monkeys, Lynch Alfaro, Silva and Rylands proposed elevating Sapajus to a separate genus in 2012. [1]

Evolutionary history

The genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro concluded that robust and gracile capuchin monkey genera diverged about 6.2 million years ago. [1] [2] This is approximately the same time that humans and chimpanzees are believed to have diverged. [1] [2] In contrast, capuchins diverged from their nearest common relative, squirrel monkeys, over 13 million years ago. [1] Lynch Alfaro suggested that the formation of the Amazon River may have caused the split that led to separation of robust and gracile capuchins. [1] [2] The robust capuchins then evolved in the Atlantic forest, while the gracile capuchins evolved in the Amazon. [1] [2]

In the late Pleistocene, about 400,000 years ago, robust capuchins began to expand their range northwards into the Cerrado and the Amazon. [1] [2] In some of these areas robust capuchins outcompeted gracile capuchins, and are now the only capuchin monkeys in the area, while particularly in the north Amazon, robust capuchins are sympatric with gracile capuchins. [1] In areas of sympatry, robust capuchins achieve higher population densities than gracile capuchins. This is thought to reflect the advantage of the adaptations for durophagy in the robust forms, which allow them to exploit hard nuts, palm fruit and unripe fruit, while gracile forms are more restricted to ripe fruit. [1] In general, robust capuchins seem to be more flexible in their diet.

Morphology

S. nigritus skull, a robust capuchin monkey. Sapajus skull portrait.JPG
S. nigritus skull, a robust capuchin monkey.

Robust capuchins differ in morphology from gracile capuchins in a number of respects. [1] Some of these are related to behavioral differences between the two genera. [1] Robust capuchins have shorter limbs relative to body size than gracile capuchins. [1] There are significant differences between the skulls of robust and gracile capuchins, particularly among males. [1] These differences include the shape of the nasal aperture and the shape of the mandible. [1] The canine teeth are also different; robust capuchins' canines are shorter and more robust than those of gracile capuchins. [1] Male robust capuchins also have a sagittal crest, which is lacking in gracile capuchins, and larger, thicker mandibles than gracile capuchins. [1] Some of these differences, such as the sagittal crest, the mandibles and teeth reflect robust capuchins' diet, which includes hard nuts and palm fruits that are difficult for gracile capuchins to consume. [1]

Robust capuchins also have some uniformly consistent features of their fur. All robust capuchins have a tuft of fur on their head, at least to some extent, while no male gracile capuchins have such a tuft. [1] They also all have a beard to some degree, which gracile capuchins lack. [1] All robust capuchins have dark fur along their "sideburns" and above their eyes. [1]

Tool use

Some robust capuchins species are known to use stone tools in the wild. [1] [5] [6] [7] [8] These are used to habitually crack open nuts and other shelled fruits, [9] seeds and even oysters. [8] Male capuchins use tools to crack open nuts more frequently than females and body mass is the best predictor of efficiency, but the sexes do not differ in terms of efficiency. [9] Some populations have also been known to use stone tools for digging soil and stick probing tools to flush out prey or dip liquid. [10] [11] [12] [13] Robust capuchins are also known at times to rub defensive secretions from arthropods over their bodies before eating them; [14] such secretions are believed to act as natural insecticides. [15] [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cebidae</span> Family of New World monkeys

The Cebidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. These species are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden-bellied capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The golden-bellied capuchin, also known as the yellow-breasted or buff-headed capuchin, is a species of New World or neotropical monkey. It lives mainly in trees and are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of both plant and animals as food. Golden-bellied capuchin normal home range is in the Atlantic forest of Brazil and it is critically endangered due to forest fragmentation and habitat loss mainly due to agriculture, there are currently efforts to protect them by the local government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capuchin monkey</span> Subfamily of New World monkeys

The capuchin monkeys are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the "organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical forests in Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. In Central America, where they are called white-faced monkeys ("carablanca"), they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tufted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The tufted capuchin, also known as brown capuchin, black-capped capuchin, or pin monkey, is a New World primate from South America and the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Margarita. As traditionally defined, it is one of the most widespread primates in the Neotropics, but it has recently been recommended considering the black-striped, black and golden-bellied capuchins as separate species in a new genus, thereby effectively limiting the tufted capuchin to the Amazon basin and nearby regions. However, the large-headed capuchin, previously defined as a distinct species, has been reclassified as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin, expanding its range east to Peru & Ecuador and south to Bolivia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaapori capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The Kaapori capuchin, also known as the Ka'apor capuchin, is a species of frugivorous, gracile capuchin endemic to the Brazilian Amazon. Their geographical home range is relatively small and is within the most densely populated region of the Amazon. With the strong human presence nearby,C. kaapori has had to deal with very large amounts of disturbances to their habitat and is one of the most endangered of the neotropical primates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wedge-capped capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The wedge-capped capuchin or Guianan weeper capuchin is a capuchin monkey from South America. It is found in northern Brazil, Guyana and Venezuela. Cebus olivaceus is known to dwell in tall, primary forest and travel over long distances during the day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The black capuchin, also known as the black-horned capuchin, is a capuchin monkey from the Atlantic Forest in south-eastern Brazil and far north-eastern Argentina. Historically, it was included as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-striped capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The black-striped capuchin, also known as the bearded capuchin, is a New World monkey in the family Cebidae. They can be found in northern and central Brazil. These capuchins mostly live in dry forests, and savannah landscapes between the Rio Araguaia and the Rio Grande. Known for its tool use, the black-stiped capuchin has been shown to use tools in a wide variety of situations, ranging from using rocks for nut cracking to using sticks for digging. They were, until recently, considered a subspecies of the tufted capuchin, but because of more research and insights, they are considered their own species by many.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Large-headed capuchin</span> Subspecies of New World monkey

The large-headed capuchin is a subspecies of the tufted capuchin monkey from South America. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. It was formerly thought to be its own species, but studies have found it to be a subspecies of the tufted capuchin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blond capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The blond capuchin is a species of capuchin monkey endemic to northeastern Brazil. This endangered species was rediscovered in 2006. It can live in exceptionally large groups of over 150 individuals, and like other capuchin species, exhibits a complex and high level of sociality. It is threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture, primarily sugarcane fields. In many cases this has caused sugarcane to make up a large portion of their diet, which would otherwise consist of mostly fruit and small animals. The blond capuchin is known to inhabit both the Atlantic forest and Caatinga biomes, although the habitation of the Caatinga may be a recent choice caused by human encroachment into its former habitats. Like other primate species, the blond capuchin is also threatened by poaching and capture for the illegal pet trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gracile capuchin monkey</span> Genus of mammals belonging to the capuchin and squirrel monkey family of primates

Gracile capuchin monkeys are capuchin monkeys in the genus Cebus. At one time all capuchin monkeys were included within the genus Cebus. In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. proposed splitting the genus between the robust capuchin monkeys, such as the tufted capuchin, and the gracile capuchins. The gracile capuchins retain the genus name Cebus, while the robust species have been transferred to Sapajus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-faced capuchin</span> Common name for several monkey species

White-faced capuchin, or white headed capuchin, can refer to either of two species of gracile capuchin monkey:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crested capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The crested capuchin or robust tufted capuchin is a species of robust capuchin monkey. It is endemic to Brazil. It was formerly considered a subspecies of the black capuchin but is now considered by some to be a separate species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azaras's capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

Azaras's capuchin or hooded capuchin is a species of robust capuchin. It occurs in eastern Paraguay, southeastern Bolivia, northern Argentina, and Brazil, at Mato Grosso do Sul and Mato Grosso states, in Pantanal. Its habitat consists of subtropical, humid, semi-deciduous, gallery forests and forested regions of the Pantanals. Formerly, it was considered a subspecies of black-striped capuchin, according to Groves (2005) with the name Cebus libidinosus paraguayanus, but Silva Jr. (2001) considered it a separated species. They are considered as frugivores-insectivores which means that their diet mainly consists of a variety of fruits, seeds, arthropods, frogs, small mammals, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown weeper capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The brown weeper capuchin or Venezuelan brown capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey endemic to Venezuela, although some sources also consider it to occur on Trinidad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Varied white-fronted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The varied white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from Colombia. It had been classified as a subspecies of the white-fronted capuchin Genetic analysis by Jean Boubli in 2012 revealed it to be a separate species. Some authors regard the Río Cesar white-fronted capuchin to be a subspecies of the varied white-fronted capuchin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sierra de Perijá white-fronted capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The Sierra de Perijá white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from Colombia and Venezuela. It had formerly been regarded as a subspecies of the Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin but was reclassified by Mittermeier and Rylands as a separate species in 2013, based on genetic studies by Jean Boubli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shock-headed capuchin</span> Species of New World monkey

The shock-headed capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from Bolivia and Peru. It was previously classified as a subspecies of the Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin, but in 2013 Mittermeier and Rylands elevated it to a separate species, following genetic studies by Boubli et al. in 2012 and Lynch Alfaro et al. in 2010.

Spix's white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey. It had previously been classified as a subspecies of the Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin. Following genetic studies by Boubli, et al, Mittermeier and Ryland elevated it to a full species.

Primate archaeology is a field of research established in 2008 that combines research interests and foci from primatology and archaeology. The main aim of primate archaeology is to study behavior of extant and extinct primates and the associated material records. The discipline attempts to move beyond archaeology's anthropocentric perspective by placing the focus on both past and present primate tool use.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Lynch Alfaro, J. W.; Silva, J. S. & Rylands, A. B. (2012). "How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus". American Journal of Primatology . 74 (4): 1–14. doi:10.1002/ajp.22007. PMID   22328205. S2CID   18840598.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; et al. (2011). "Explosive Pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread Amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys" (PDF). Journal of Biogeography . 39 (2): 272–88. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x. S2CID   13791283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-26.
  3. ↑ Groves, C. P. (2005). "Genus Cebus". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 136–138. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  4. 1 2 Rímoli, J.; de Melo, F.R.; dos Santos, M.C.; Mollinedo, J.M.; Ludwig, G.; Lynch Alfaro, J.W. (2021). "Sapajus cay". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2021: e.T136366A192593536. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T136366A192593536.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  5. ↑ Fragaszy, D.; Izar, P.; Visalberghi, E.; Ottoni, E. B.; de Oliveira, M. G. (2004). "Wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) use anvils and stone pounding tools". American Journal of Primatology. 64 (4): 359–366. doi:10.1002/ajp.20085. PMID   15580579. S2CID   16222308.
  6. ↑ Ottoni, E. B.; Izar, P. (2008). "Capuchin monkey tool use: Overview and implications". Evolutionary Anthropology. 17 (4): 171–178. doi:10.1002/evan.20185. S2CID   83604383.
  7. ↑ Ottoni, E. B.; Mannu, M. (2001). "Semifree-ranging Tufted Capuchins (Cebus apella) Spontaneously Use Tools to Crack Open Nuts" (PDF). International Journal of Primatology. 22 (3): 347–358. doi:10.1023/A:1010747426841. S2CID   29768277.
  8. 1 2 Garber, P. A., Gomez, D. F. & Bicca-Marques, J. C. (2011). "Experimental Field Study of Problem-Solving Using Tools in Free-Ranging Capuchins (Sapajus nigritus, formerly Cebus nigritus)". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 344–358. doi:10.1002/ajp.20957. PMID   21538454. S2CID   39363765 . Retrieved 2012-03-18.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. 1 2 Spagnoletti, Noemi; Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Verderane, Michele P.; Ottoni, Eduardo; Izar, Patricia; Fragaszy, Dorothy (May 2012). "Stone tool use in wild bearded capuchin monkeys, Cebus libidinosus. Is it a strategy to overcome food scarcity?". Animal Behaviour. 83 (5): 1285–1294. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.03.002. S2CID   1046994.
  10. ↑ Mannu, Massimo; Ottoni, Eduardo B. (March 2009). "The enhanced tool-kit of two groups of wild bearded capuchin monkeys in the Caatinga: tool making, associative use, and secondary tools". American Journal of Primatology. 71 (3): 242–251. doi:10.1002/ajp.20642. PMID   19051323. S2CID   3479020.
  11. ↑ Falótico, Tiago; Ottoni, Eduardo B. (2014-10-01). "Sexual bias in probe tool manufacture and use by wild bearded capuchin monkeys". Behavioural Processes. 108: 117–122. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2014.09.036. PMID   25446625. S2CID   8170698.
  12. ↑ Falótico, Tiago; Ottoni, Eduardo B. (2016-04-21). "The manifold use of pounding stone tools by wild capuchin monkeys of Serra da Capivara National Park, Brazil". Behaviour. 153 (4): 421–442. doi:10.1163/1568539X-00003357. ISSN   1568-539X.
  13. ↑ Falótico, Tiago; Ottoni, Eduardo B. (2013-11-21). "Stone Throwing as a Sexual Display in Wild Female Bearded Capuchin Monkeys, Sapajus libidinosus". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e79535. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...879535F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079535 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3836890 . PMID   24278147.
  14. ↑ Alfaro, Jessica W. Lynch; Matthews, Luke; Boyette, Adam H.; Macfarlan, Shane J.; Phillips, Kimberley A.; Falótico, Tiago; Ottoni, Eduardo; Verderane, Michele; Izar, Patrícia (2012-04-01). "Anointing variation across wild capuchin populations: a review of material preferences, bout frequency and anointing sociality in Cebus and Sapajus". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 299–314. doi:10.1002/ajp.20971. ISSN   1098-2345. PMID   21769906. S2CID   14560688.
  15. ↑ Valderrama, X.; et al. (2000). "Seasonal Anointment with Millipedes in a Wild Primate: A Chemical Defense Against Insects?". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 26 (12): 2781–2790. doi:10.1023/A:1026489826714. S2CID   25147071.
  16. ↑ Verderane, M. P.; Falótico, T.; Resende, B. D.; Labruna, M. B.; Izar, P.; Ottoni, E. B. (2007-01-17). "Anting in a Semifree-ranging Group of Cebus apella". International Journal of Primatology. 28 (1): 47. doi:10.1007/s10764-006-9102-8. ISSN   0164-0291. S2CID   39385045.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.