Red colobus

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Red colobus [1]
Red Colobus 7.jpg
Zanzibar red colobus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Cercopithecidae
Subfamily: Colobinae
Tribe: Colobini
Genus: Piliocolobus
Rochebrune, 1887 [2] [3]
Type species
Simia (Cercopithecus) badius
Kerr, 1792
Species

See text

Red colobuses are Old World monkeys of the genus Piliocolobus. [4] It was formerly considered a subgenus within the genus Procolobus , which is now restricted to the olive colobus. [1] They are closely related to the black-and-white colobus monkeys (genus Colobus), and some species are often found in groups with the blue monkey. [5] The western red colobus is frequently hunted by the common chimpanzee. [6]

Contents

The members of this genus are found in western, central and eastern Africa, and the species have largely allo- or parapatric distributions. They are primarily arboreal and most are restricted to humid forests, but the Zanzibar red colobus prefers coastal thickets and scrub. Red colobuses are highly sensitive to hunting and habitat destruction, and have been referred to as probably the most threatened taxonomic group of primates in Africa. [7] If following the taxonomic treatment advocated in Mammal Species of the World , [1] all species except the Udzungwa, Semliki, Oustalet's and Thollon's red colobus monkeys (which are vulnerable) are assessed by the IUCN as endangered or critically endangered. [8] Due to this sensitivity, it has been argued that they are indicator species for the health of Africa's tropical forests, leading researchers to urge that they be conserved as umbrella species. [9]

Social behavior

Groups often establish a dominance hierarchy determined by aggressive behavior. Food, grooming, and sexual partners are distributed amongst higher-ranking individuals initially, followed by lower-ranking individuals. [10] They live in large troops which can number up to 80 individuals, the average being somewhere around 20 to 40 monkeys. These groups tend to have more females than males at a 2:1 ratio. The few male monkeys in the troop usually stay with their original group, but the females have a tendency to move together in small numbers, probably in close familial relationships, between troops. Red colobus monkeys have overlapping ranges with other troops. Interactions between troops can be either tense, though passive, or violent, with one troop trying to supplant the other. These fights are usually based on a number of factors including physical condition, fighting ability, and the number of males in the opposing troop. Females are also known to take part in these competitions for dominance, and often fight together. Mother-infant bonds among the red colobus are quite strong, as they are with most primates. The mothers are usually reluctant to allow other females from their troop to carry their babies. This may be because many of the females in a troop are not related as they move between groups quite frequently. [11]

Another remarkable behavior occurs when red colobus monkeys reach their restless and somewhat nomadic adolescence. This period is when the young monkeys leave their natal troops and look for another troop to join. This is not easy, as most troops are very suspicious and can get deadly when new monkeys try to join. The red colobus monkeys have adapted their behavior by joining troops of green monkeys that are near the potential red colobus troops that they wish to join, and living amongst them in order to spy on their potential new families. In one notable case, an adolescent male red colobus spent two years with a green monkey troop in order to spy in safety on a prospective troop in this manner. [12]

Diet

The diet of red colobus monkeys consists mainly of young leaves, flowers, and unripe fruit. [13] They are also known to eat charcoal or clay to help combat the cyanide some leaves may contain. This medicinal cure for the plants they eat appears to be passed on from mother to child. [14] However, their stomachs are able to digest some toxic plants that other primates cannot. [13] Red colobus monkeys are extraordinarily adapted to their entirely vegetarian and widely varied diet. They have special salivary glands, which are larger and produce more specialized saliva to help facilitate the breakdown of leaves before they reach the digestive tract. The stomach of the red colobus is also sacculated into four chambers (similar to unrelated ungulates) and larger than those of other monkeys of a comparative size. This allows for longer digestion, so that most of the nutrients can be gleaned from the relatively low nutrient food. [15]

Chimpanzee predation

Research indicates that chimpanzee predation may be a major selection factor on some red colobus populations. [16] Although chimpanzees primarily eat fruit, leaves, and insects, if the opportunity to eat meat arises, they will pursue it. In addition to sustenance, evidence suggests that chimpanzees prey on red colobus to reinforce social status, as well as to attract sexual partners. [17] When under attack, the red colobus males congregate to defend their group, while the females gather their infants and try to escape. Larger groups of red colobuses have an increased likelihood of attracting chimpanzees, but they also tend to have more defending males, making it harder for chimpanzees to hunt successfully. [18] Furthermore, while under attack, male colobuses shout an alarm call to let others know if chimpanzees or other predators are in the area. The frequency of these shouts is increased with the number of females and infants in the group as a way to spread the news of an expected attack. [19] At Gombe National Park in Tanzania C.B. Stanford estimated that the Gombe chimps kill up to 100 colobus monkeys a year, which he believes to be close to a fifth of the colobus population within their territory. [20] Another study confirms that chimpanzees are annually responsible for 6-12 percent of red colobus female and infant death in Ngogo, Kibale National Park, which has one of the largest populations of chimpanzees. It seems that chimpanzees tend to favor the red colobus as prey whenever the two are in the same territory, hunting in groups of up to 20 individual chimps. During these hunts in Tai, Gombe, Ngogo, and Mahale National Parks, ≥ 87 percent of the hunts made more than one kill. The highest amount of kills seen during this study was 13, most of which were infants. [21]

Species

Genus Piliocolobus – Rochebrune, 1887 – sixteen species
Common nameScientific name and subspeciesRangeSize and ecologyIUCN status and estimated population
Bouvier's red colobus


P. bouvieri
Rochebrune, 1887		 Congo (in purple on left)
Distribution Piliocolobus species.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [23]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 EN 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [23]

Foa's red colobus


P. foai
(Pousargues, 1899)		Congo (in black, bottom right)
Distribution Piliocolobus species.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [24]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 EN 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [24]

Lang's red colobus


P. langi
(J. A. Allen, 1925)		Congo
Distribution Piliocolobus langi.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [25]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 EN 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [25]

Lomami red colobus


P. parmentieri
(Colyn & Verheyen, 1987)		Congo
Distribution Piliocolobus parmentieri.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [26]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 EN 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [26]

Miss Waldron's red colobus


P. waldronae
(Hayman, 1936)		Western Africa
Miss-waldrons-red-colobus-range.svg 		Size: 47–63 cm (19–25 in) long, plus 52–75 cm (20–30 in) tail [27]

Habitat: Forest [28]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, leaves, buds, and flowers [27] 		 CR 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [28]

Niger Delta red colobus


P. epieni
(Grubb & Powell, 1999)		Western AfricaSize: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [29]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 CR 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [29]

Oustalet's red colobus


P. oustaleti
(Trouessart, 1906)		Congo (in green)
Distribution Piliocolobus species.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [30]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 VU 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [30]

Pennant's colobus

Piliocolobus pennantii.jpg

P. pennantii
(Waterhouse, 1838)		Western Africa
Pennant's Colobus area.png 		Size: 53–63 cm (21–25 in) long, plus 60–70 cm (24–28 in) tail [31]

Habitat: Forest [32]

Diet: Leaves and shoots, as well as seeds and fruit [31] 		 CR 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [32]

Preuss's red colobus

Preuss's red colobus.jpg

P. preussi
Matschie, 1900		Western Africa
Preuss's Red Colobus area.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [33]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 CR 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [33]

Semliki red colobus


P. semlikiensis
(Colyn, 1991)		Congo (in dark blue on right)
Distribution Piliocolobus species.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [34]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 VU 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [34]

Tana River red colobus

Piliocolobus rufomitratus 35499959 (cropped).jpg

P. rufomitratus
(Peters, 1879)		 Kenya Size: 45–67 cm (18–26 in) long, plus 52–80 cm (20–31 in) tail [35]

Habitat: Forest, shrubland, and inland wetlands [36]

Diet: Leaves, fruit, and seeds, as well as flowers [35] 		 CR 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [36]

Thollon's red colobus


P. tholloni
(A. Milne-Edwards, 1886)		Congo (in orange)
Distribution Piliocolobus species.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [37]

Diet: Leaves, fruit, and seeds, as well as flowers [37] 		 VU 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [37]

Udzungwa red colobus

Udzungwa Red Colobus Stevage.JPG

P. gordonorum
Matschie, 1900		Southeastern Africa
Udzungwa Red Colobus area.png 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest [38]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 VU 


35,000 Decrease2.svg [38]

Ugandan red colobus

Ugandan red colobus (Procolobus tephrosceles).jpg

P. tephrosceles
(Elliot, 1907)		Eastern Africa
Distribution Piliocolobus tephrosceles.jpg 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest and savanna [39]

Diet: Fruit, seeds, and leaves [22] 		 EN 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [39]

Western red colobus

Western Red Colobus Monkey (32257813804).jpg

P. badius
(Kerr, 1792)

Three subspecies
Western Africa
Western Red Colobus area.png 		Size: 45–67 cm (18–26 in) long, plus 52–80 cm (20–31 in) tail

Habitat: Forest and savanna [40]

Diet: Leaves, seeds, unripe fruit, and shoots [41] 		 EN 


Unknown Decrease2.svg [40]

Zanzibar red colobus

Piliocolobus kirkii 7.jpg

P. kirkii
(Gray, 1868)		Eastern Africa
Procolobus kirkii distribution (2).svg 		Size: 41–70 cm (16–28 in) long, plus 42–80 cm (17–31 in) tail [22]

Habitat: Forest and shrubland [42]

Diet: Leaves, fruit, and seeds, as well as flowers [43] 		 EN 


5,900 Decrease2.svg [42]

Colin Groves did not recognize all these species in the 2005 Mammal Species of the World, but he subsequently agreed that additional species should be recognized. [1] [44] These species are generally agreed upon although different authors may use slightly different taxonomies. For example, the Integrated Taxonomic Information System, IUCN Red List, and Mammal Diversity Database list Temminck's red colobus as a subspecies of the Western red colobus, Piliocolobus badius temminckii, [45] [46] [47] [48] but The Handbook of Mammals of the World regarded it as a full species. [4] In addition to the recognized species, there is also a hybrid zone in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo where hybrids of several local species exist. [45]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-and-white colobus</span> Genus of Old World monkeys

Black-and-white colobuses are Old World monkeys of the genus Colobus, native to Africa. They are closely related to the red colobus monkeys of genus Piliocolobus. There are five species of this monkey, and at least eight subspecies. They are generally found in high-density forests where they forage on leaves, flowers and fruit. Social groups of colobus are diverse, varying from group to group. Resident-egalitarian and allomothering relationships have been observed among the female population. Complex behaviours have also been observed in this species, including greeting rituals and varying group sleeping patterns. Colobi play a significant role in seed dispersal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mantled guereza</span> Species of mammal

The mantled guereza, also known simply as the guereza, the eastern black-and-white colobus, or the Abyssinian black-and-white colobus, is a black-and-white colobus, a type of Old World monkey. It is native to much of west central and east Africa, including Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Chad. The species consists of several subspecies that differ in appearance. It has a distinctive appearance, which is alluded to in its name; the long white fringes of hair that run along each side of its black trunk are known as a mantle. Its face is framed with white hair and it has a large white tail tuft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-eyelid mangabey</span> Genus of Old World monkeys

The white-eyelid mangabeys are African Old World monkeys belonging to the genus Cercocebus. They are characterized by their bare upper eyelids, which are lighter than their facial skin colouring, and the uniformly coloured hairs of the fur. The other two genera of mangabeys, Lophocebus and Rungwecebus, were once thought to be very closely related to Cercocebus, so much so that all the species were placed in one genus, but Lophocebus and Rungwecebus species are now understood to be more closely related to the baboons in genus Papio, while the Cercocebus species are more closely related to the mandrill.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Miss Waldron's red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

Miss Waldron's red colobus is a species of the red colobus native to West Africa. It had previously been described as a subspecies of the western red colobus, P. badius. It has not been officially sighted since 1978 and was considered extinct in 2000. However, new evidence suggests that a very small number of these monkeys may be living in the southeast corner of Côte d'Ivoire. The IUCN Red List notes Miss Waldron's red colobus as critically endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

The western red colobus, also known as the bay red colobus, rust red colobus or Upper Guinea red colobus, is a species of Old World monkey in West African forests from Senegal to Ghana. All other species of red colobuses have formerly been considered subspecies of P. badius. The monkey is a frequent prey of the common chimpanzee. In 1994, western red colobus monkeys infected many chimpanzees with Ebola virus after being hunted and consumed by the chimps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

The black colobus, or satanic black colobus, is a species of Old World monkey belonging to the genus Colobus. The species is found in a small area of western central Africa. Black colobuses are large, completely covered with black fur, and like all other Colobus monkeys, do not have a thumb. The species has faced large declines in population due to habitat destruction and hunting by humans, and was consequently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List in 1994.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Udzungwa red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

The Udzungwa red colobus, also known as the Uzungwa red colobus or Iringa red colobus, is a species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae. It is endemic to riverine and montane forest in the Udzungwa Mountains in Kilolo District of Iringa Region in Tanzania. It is threatened by habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pennant's colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

Pennant's colobus or Pennant's red colobus is a species of tree-dwelling primate in the family Cercopithecidae. It is endemic to tropical Central Africa. Three subspecies have traditionally been recognised but its distribution is peculiarly disjunct and has been considered a biogeographical puzzle, with one population on the island of Bioko, a second in the Niger River Delta in southern Nigeria, and a third in east-central Republic of Congo. It is found in rainforests and marshy forests. It is threatened by habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tana River red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

The Tana River red colobus, also called the eastern red colobus, is a highly endangered species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae. It is endemic to a narrow zone of gallery forest near the Tana River in southeastern Kenya.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preuss's red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

Preuss's red colobus is a red colobus primate species endemic to the Cross-Sanaga Rivers ecoregion. An important population occurs in Korup National Park, Southwest Province, Cameroon, but the species' distribution is localized. The species is considered present in adjacent Cross River National Park - Oban Division in Nigeria and hunter reports suggest that few groups remain in Nkwende Hills and Nta Ali Forest Reserve in the broader Korup region. A population is also present in Ebo forest, Littoral Province of Cameroon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central African red colobus</span> Common name for several monkey species

Central African red colobus is the traditional name for several species of red colobus monkey that had formerly been considered a single species, Piliocolobus foai. Central African red colobus monkeys are found in humid forests in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic and South Sudan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thollon's red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

Thollon's red colobus, also known as the Tshuapa red colobus, is a species of red colobus monkey from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and lower Republic of the Congo. It is found south of Congo River and west of Lomami River. It had once been considered a subspecies of the P. badius. It was recognised as a distinct species by Dandelot in 1974, and this was followed by Groves in 2001, while others have suggested it should be considered a subspecies of P. rufomitratus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ugandan red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

The Ugandan red colobus or ashy red colobus is an endangered species of red colobus monkey, recognised as a distinct species since 2001. There is disagreement however over taxonomy with many considering the Ugandan red colobus to be a subspecies. The Ugandan red colobus is an Old World monkey which is found in five different locations across Uganda and Tanzania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates</span> List of highly-endangered primate species

The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates is a list of highly endangered primate species selected and published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC) Primate Specialist Group (PSG), the International Primatological Society (IPS), Global Wildlife Conservation (GWC), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS). The IUCN/SSC PSG worked with Conservation International (CI) to start the list in 2000, but in 2002, during the 19th Congress of the International Primatological Society, primatologists reviewed and debated the list, resulting in the 2002–2004 revision and the endorsement of the IPS. The publication was a joint project between the three conservation organizations until the 2012–2014 list when BZS was added as a publisher. The 2018–2020 list was the first time Conservation International was not among the publishers, replaced instead by GWC. The list has been revised every two years following the biannual Congress of the IPS. Starting with the 2004–2006 report, the title changed to "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates". That same year, the list began to provide information about each species, including their conservation status and the threats they face in the wild. The species text is written in collaboration with experts from the field, with 60 people contributing to the 2006–2008 report and 85 people contributing to the 2008–2010 report. The 2004–2006 and 2006–2008 reports were published in the IUCN/SSC PSG journal Primate Conservation,, since then they have been published as independent publications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Niger Delta red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

The Niger Delta red colobus is a critically endangered species of colobus monkey endemic to the western part of the Niger Delta. It is threatened by hunting and habitat loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temminck's red colobus</span> Subspecies of Old World monkey

Temminck's red colobus is a type of red colobus monkey from the Gambia, Casamance, Guinea-Bissau and northwestern Guinea. It has historically been regarded as a subspecies of the western red colobus, and the Integrated Taxonomic Information System and Mammal Diversity Database both maintain this classification, but many less recent taxonomies classify it as a separate species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foa's red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

Foa's red colobus or the Central African red colobus, is a species of red colobus monkey found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oustalet's red colobus</span> Species of Old World monkey

Oustalet's red colobus is a species of red colobus monkey. It lives in various types of forest in southern South Sudan, southern Central African Republic, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northeastern Republic of the Congo. It eats leaves, fruit, flowers, buds and possibly seeds. Males have a head and body length of between 45.9 and 68 cm with a tail length of between 55.5 and 73 cm. Females have a head and body length of between 52 and 64 cm with a tail length of between 68 and 73 cm. Males weigh about 12.5 kg (28 lb) and females weigh about 8.2 kg (18 lb).

References

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  3. ↑ de Rochebrune, A. (1887). Faune de Senegambie (Supplement). p. 96.
  4. 1 2 Zinner, D.; Fickenscher, G.H.; Roos, C. (2013). Mittermeier, Russell A.; Rylands, Anthony B.; Wilson, Don E. (eds.). Handbook of the Mammals of the World: Volume 3, Primates. Lynx. pp. 705–712. ISBN   978-8496553897.
  5. ↑ Ghiglieri, Michael. East of the Mountains of the Moon: Chimpanzee Society in the African Rain Forest, The Free Press, 1988, pg. 238.
  6. ↑ Ebola Cote d'Ivoire Outbreaks
  7. ↑ Mittermeier, R. A., Ratsimbazafy, J., Rylands, A. B., Williamson, L., Oates, J. F., Mbora, D., Ganzhorn, J. U., Rodríguez-Luna, E., Palacios, E., Heymann, E. W., Kierulff, M. C. M., Yongcheng, L., Supriatna, J., Roos, C., Walker, S., & Aguiar, J. M. (2007). Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates, 2006–2008. Primate Conservation 2007 (22): 1-40
  8. ↑ IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 12 September 2011.
  9. ↑ Linder, Joshua M.; Cronin, Drew T.; Ting, Nelson; Abwe, Ekwoge E.; Aghomo, Florence; Davenport, Tim R. B.; Detwiler, Kate M.; Galat, Gérard; Galat-Luong, Anh; Hart, John A.; Ikemeh, Rachel A.; Kivai, Stanislaus M.; Koné, Inza; Konstant, William; Kujirakwinja, Deo (2024-04-30). "To conserve African tropical forests, invest in the protection of its most endangered group of monkeys, red colobus". Conservation Letters. 17 (3). Bibcode:2024ConL...17E3014L. doi: 10.1111/conl.13014 . ISSN   1755-263X.
  10. ↑ Mbora, D. N. M., & Meikle, D. B. (2004). Forest fragmentation and the distribution, abundance and conservation of the tana river red colobus (procolobus rufomitratus). Biological Conservation, 118(1), 67-77.
  11. ↑ Oates, J (1994). Colobine monkeys: their ecology, behavior, and evolution. Cambridge: The Syndicate Press of the University of Cambridge. pp. 107–118.
  12. ↑ Starin, E.D. (1993). "The kindness of strangers". Natural History. 102 (10): 44.
  13. 1 2 Foraging challenges of red colobus monkeys: influence of nutrients and secondary compounds Original Research Article Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, Volume 133, Issue 3, November 2002, Pages 861-875 Colin A. Chapman, Lauren J. Chapman
  14. ↑ Bruemmer, F (2010). "A charcoal a day". Natural History. 119 (2): 2–4.
  15. ↑ Swindler, D. (1998). Introduction to the primates . Seattle: University of Washington Press. p.  47. ISBN   9780295977041.
  16. ↑ Stanford, C. B. (1995). The influence of chimpanzee predation on group size and anti-predator behaviour in red colobus monkeys. Animal Behaviour, 49(3), 577-587.
  17. ↑ Chimpanzee and Red Colobus: The Ecology of Predator and Prey: By Craig B. Stanford, Harvard University Press, 1999, 296 pp; ISBN   0-674-11667-4 Physiology & Behavior, Volume 76, Issue 1, 1 May 2002, Pages 171-172 David P. Barash
  18. ↑ Mbora, D. N. M., & Meikle, D. B. (2004). Forest fragmentation and the distribution, abundance and conservation of the tana river red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus). Biological Conservation, 118(1), 67-77.
  19. ↑ Schel, A. M., Candiotti, A., & Zuberbühler, K. (2010). Predator-deterring alarm call sequences in guereza colobus monkeys are meaningful to conspecifics. Animal Behaviour, 80(5), 799-808.
  20. ↑ Stanford, C., (1995). To catch a colobus. Natural History, 104(1) 48
  21. ↑ Watts, D. P., & Mitani, J. C., (2002). Hunting behavior of chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. International Journal of Primatology, 23(1) 1-28
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Kingdon 2015, p. 103
  23. 1 2 Maisels, F.; Devreese, L. (2022) [amended version of 2020 assessment]. "Piliocolobus bouvieri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2022: e.T18250A210339606. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T18250A210339606.en .
  24. 1 2 Hart, J.; Ting, N.; Maisels, F. (2020). "Piliocolobus foai". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T18252A92659769. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T18252A92659769.en .
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  26. 1 2 Hart, J. A.; Detwiler, K. M. (2020) [amended version of 2019 assessment]. "Piliocolobus parmentieri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T40648A166604269. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T40648A166604269.en .
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  44. ↑ Groves, C.P. (2016). "Species concepts and conservation". In Wich, Serge A.; Marshall, Andrew J. (eds.). An Introduction to Primate Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–47. ISBN   9780198703396.
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  46. ↑ "Piliocolobus badius temminckii". ITIS. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
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  48. ↑ "Piliocolobus badius (Kerr, 1792)". Mammal Diversity Database. American Society of Mammalogists. Retrieved 29 January 2022.

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