Creighton Mine

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Creighton Mine
Creighton Mine.JPG
Location
Canada Ontario location map 2.svg
Schlaegel und Eisen nach DIN 21800.svg
Creighton Mine
Location of the mine within Ontario
Location Greater Sudbury
Province Ontario
Country Canada
Coordinates 46°27′50″N81°10′29″W / 46.46389°N 81.17472°W / 46.46389; -81.17472
Production
Products Nickel, Copper, Platinum, Palladium, Gold, Silver
Type Underground, originally open pit
History
Opened1901 (1901)
Owner
Company Vale Limited
Website vale.com

Creighton Mine is an underground nickel, copper, and platinum-group elements (PGE) mine. It is presently owned and operated by Vale Limited (formerly known as INCO) in the city of Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Open pit mining began in 1901, and underground mining began in 1906. [1] The mine is situated in the Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC) in its South Range geologic unit. [2] The mine is the source of many excavation-related seismic events, such as earthquakes and rock burst events. [3] It is home to SNOLAB, and is currently the deepest nickel mine in Canada. [4] [5] Expansion projects to deepen the Creighton Mine are currently underway. [6]

Contents

History

Discovery and development

Miners drilling in the Creighton Mine, unknown date. Hommes qui forent dans les murs de la mine, mine de Creighton, International Nickel Co., Creighton (Ontario).jpg
Miners drilling in the Creighton Mine, unknown date.

The deposits at Creighton mine were the first mineralized deposits discovered in the Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC) mining camp. They were discovered by Albert Salter in 1856 due to deflections in his compass readings. [7] Production at Creighton Mine began in 1901 under the Canadian Copper Company, and later the International Nickel Company (INCO).[ citation needed ] [8] [9] The mine was an open-pit mine from 1901 to 1908, and was transitioned to an underground mine in 1906. [10] In 1969, the 7138-foot No. 9 shaft was completed, making it the deepest continuous mine shaft in the Western Hemisphere. [8] Brazil's Vale announced a $19.4 billion takeover of INCO, which was approved in 2007. The company was known as Vale S.A. (Vale) from 2009 onwards. [8]

The Creighton settlement

Creighton Mine employed 94 men in 1902, and built accommodations for the men and their families. [9] In 1903, school classes and religious services were being held in one of the company cabins for the miner's families. [9] As the workforce at the mine increased, the company constructed more single family homes with running water and electricity. [9] As development continued, the company began to include rent, hydro, and employees club deductions on the company pay cheques. [9]

In 1986, INCO announced that the company would be "getting out of the landlord business" [11] due to the expense of maintaining the settlement to modern standards. [11] The community of Creighton was closed on June 30, 1988. [11]

Geology

The Creighton Mine lies within the Sudbury Igneous Complex. [2]

Formation of the Sudbury Igneous Complex

The Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC) is an impact melt structure, formed by the collision of a meteor 1.85 billion years ago. [12] The bolide impact created a crater 200 to 250 km across and melted the pre-existing rock, which partially filled in the crater. [12] Today, the SIC is approximately 3 km thick, and has an elliptical footprint of approximately 60 km by 27 km. [12]

An important geological unit within the SIC is the Sudbury Breccia, which is an impactite interpreted to have been formed during the impact crater modification or excavation. [2] Copper, nickel, and PGE rich sulfides settled to the base of the molten Sudbury Breccia, and formed veins and stockworks of mineralization in the footwall (the non-igneous rocks underlying the SIC). [2] [12] Pre-existing weaknesses in the footwall play a crucial role in the distribution of these sulfide-rich structures. [2] This results in a spatial association between the sulfide-rich ore deposit locations and the lithological contact between the footwall and the Sudbury Breccia. [2] The contact between the SIC and the footwall is marked by "broad haloes of metalliferous hydrous silicate minerals", [2] thought to be created by the early process of magmatic-hydrothermal fluid alteration and the late process of metamorphic fluid alteration. [2]

Geology of the Creighton Mine

The Creighton Mine property is home to the South Range geologic unit, which contains the main orebody of the mine. [2] The major mineralization occurs as platinum-group mineral (PGM)-rich intrusions within the footwall. [13] Sulfide-rich base metal intrusions also contribute to the mine's mineralization. [13] The amphibole within the ore body shifts from ferro-hornblende to ferro-tschermakite amphibole. [2] This, along with the calcium and tantalum variations and an age of titanite of 1.616 billion years, has been interpreted to reflect an "increasing temperature-pressure gradient towards shear zones that were active during the Mazatzalian orogeny". [2] It is also believed that the sulfides of this deposit were re-mobilized during this event. [2]

A study on the formation of the ore body at the Creighton Mine indicates that the economic minerals crystallized from the sulfide melt early on in the cooling process. [13] These minerals collected in embayments and in troughs at the base of the SIC along the footwall rock, forming "small pendants of ore" [13] in the footwall rock. [13] This type of mineralization is called contact type mineralization, as it occurs between the contact of the SIC and the underlying footwall. [14] Sulfide mineralization on the property occurs as massive to disseminated sulfides, occurring as massive sulfides near the footwall and grading towards disseminated sulfides towards the hanging wall. [14]

It is thought that the PGE sulfarsenides which display zoning, and the sperrylite, first crystallized from a 900°-1200°C sulfate melt. [13] These minerals were then surrounded by disseminated sulfides and monosulfide solid solution cumulates (MSS) which crystallized from the now PGE sulfarsenide and sperrylite poor sulfide liquid. [13] Subsequently, at either the hydrothermal or late magmatic stage, which occur at temperatures of less than 540°C, base metal recrystalization occurred with secondary hydrosilicates. [13] It was at this point that the present michenerite was crystallized. [13] The zonation of the sulfarsenides was preserved through a later stage of deformation caused by shear zones. [13] However, the PGM were " corroded, fractures, and juxtaposed against silicates" [13]

This process and the presence of MSS also helps account for the majority of palladium present in the pentlandite, as the present concentrations of pentlandite cannot solely be created by sulfide fractionation. [15] It is thought that the palladium entered the pentlandite during its exsolution from the MSS, and that the palladium came from two sources; a small amount of palladium which originally partitioned in to the MSS, and "a larger quantity of Pd in the nearby Cu-rich portion (intermediate solid solution and/or Pd-bearing PGM)" [15] This process lead to a depletion of the palladium sources, causing younger pentlandite which had formed later to contain lower amounts of palladium than older pentlandite. [15]

Ore minerals

Sulfide-rich rock sample collected in the Greater Sudbury Area. Visibly contains chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, and quartz. Photo and sample provided by Kaitlyn de Moree. Massive Sulfide Ore.jpg
Sulfide-rich rock sample collected in the Greater Sudbury Area. Visibly contains chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, and quartz. Photo and sample provided by Kaitlyn de Moree.
Pyrite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite mineralization. Sulfide-rich rock sample collected in the Greater Sudbury Area. Photo and sample provided by Kaitlyn de Moree. Sulfide Rock Sample from the Greater Sudbury Area.jpg
Pyrite, arsenopyrite, and chalcopyrite mineralization. Sulfide-rich rock sample collected in the Greater Sudbury Area. Photo and sample provided by Kaitlyn de Moree.

86% of the precious metal mineralogy at the mine consists of PGE sulfarsenides, 9% is sperrylite, 5% is michenerite, and 0.1% is electrum. [13] These minerals are generally found hosted by pentlandite and pyrrhotite. [13] Michenerite, however, is found near or hosted by silicate minerals. [13] Euhedral zoning with an " irarsite (IrAsS) core, an outer layer of hollingworthite (RhAsS), and a PGE-rich Ni cobaltite rim (CoAsS)" [13] is common of the PGE sulfarsenides found at the mine. [13] Osmium bearing rhenium sulfides also have documented occurrences at Creighton Mine. [13]

Common ore minerals found at the Creighton mine include chalcopyrite, cubanite, galena, ilmenite, magnetite, pentlandite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. [16] [15] Less common and non-ore minerals which occur at the mine include altaite, argentopentlandite, arsenopyrite, biotite, bornite, cassiterite, cobaltite, epidote, froodite, gersdorffite, gold, heazlewoodite, hessite, hollingworthite, insizwaite, irarsite, kotulskite, marcasite, maslovite, melonite, merenskyite, michenerite, millerite, moncheite, muscovite, nickeline, parkerite, quartz, rutile, silver, sperrylite, sphalerite, stützite, tin, and tsumoite. [17]

Production

Creighton Mine is primarily a nickel, copper, and PGE mine, but also produces gold, silver, cobalt, selenium, and tellurium. [16]

Mining methods

Since the first production of Creighton Mine in 1901, [16] over 155 million tonnes of ore have been extracted.[ citation needed ] The mine was an open-pit mine from 1901 to 1908, and was transitioned to an underground mine in 1906.[ citation needed ] Currently, the mining methods used are bulk mining with the vertical retreat method (95% of production), and selective stoping with the mechanized cut-and-fill method (5% of ore production).[ citation needed ]

Production levels

In 2005, Creighton mine produced an average of 3,755 tons of ore per day on a 6 days per week schedule. 2007 was a breakthrough in mining extraction and exploration, with the conformation of mineralization at depth, [18] which produced 793,000 tonnes of ore with grades of 1.62% copper and 2.8% nickel.[ citation needed ]. 2018 saw production rate reach 608,000 tones of ore with grades of 2.77% copper and 2.5% nickel. [19] While 2019, saw 6,130,000 tonnes of ore produced, with copper grades of 2.67% and nickel grades of 2.68%. [20] Ore is processed off site at Vale's Clarabelle Mill for nickel and copper, and the platinum group element (PGE) intermediates are sent to Vale's processing facility in Port Colborne, Ontario. [20] [21] [ citation needed ]

Seismic events

Creighton mine contains four families and twelve total of shear zones. [22] [3] The deep nature of the mining and mineral exploration of the Creighton mine means that some of these local shear zones are re-mobilized during normal mining operations. [23] [3] This re-mobilization has resulted in several earthquakes and rock burst events felt in nearby Sudbury and the surrounding areas, with a total of 123 felt and unfelt seismic events between January 2000 and September 2013. [24] [25] [3] These seismic events are generally between 0.0 and 4.0 Mn, and result in temporarily halting work at the mine. [26] [25] [27] [3]

A study on the seismicity due to work at the Creigton Mine has revealed that it is the minor, not the major, shear zones within the mine which account for the majority of the fault-slip seismicity. [22] However, the major shear zones "influence the flow of stress" [22] of the bedrock surrounding the excavation. [22]

The rate of seismicity at the mine has been directly correlated with the amount of excavation occurring at the mine. [3] Seismically quiet periods at the mine have been identified during labour-interruption periods in 2003, 2009–2010, and 2012. [3] The seismicity rate of the mine is also affected by the geologic structures which are actively being excavated. [3] One of the most seismically active structures of the mine, a footwall extension near the Plum shear zone of the 400 orebody, was actively being mined between 2001 and 2003. [3] During this time, there was also a marked and correlated increase in seismic activity during this time. [3]

Ground control

Because of the rate of seismicity, Creighton Mine employs a ground control program to monitor seismicity. The ground control program at Creighton Mine costs $20 million a year, and consists of a team of over 20 people along with a large network of smart cables and seismometers. [6]

SNOLAB

Creighton Mine's 6,800-foot (2,100 m) level is home to the world's deepest cleanest underground physics laboratory. [5] Originally excavated for the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), it has been expanded into a general-purpose facility called SNOLAB. The original laboratory, the SNO, was a heavy-water neutrino "Cherenkov detector". [28] In 2004, a $7.5 million 3-story lab was constructed for the SNO on the grounds of the Creighton Mine, creating the foundation for the laboratories known today as SNOLAB. [28] [5] SNOLAB was initially constructed with $70 million in capital funds, and in 2020 received an additional $40.9 million in funding from Canada's Minister of Innovation. [29] [5]

Creighton deepening project

In 2005, two projects were underway to allow deeper mining at Creighton Mine. The first was an $8-million, four-year diamond drill exploration program that will allow for ore tonnage to be defined down to the 10,000-foot (3,000 m) level. [30] The second was a $48-million expansion project that established production ore at the 7,810-foot (2,380 m) level and was estimated to bring 1.8 million tons of high-grade ore into production from 2006 to 2011. [31] This expansion was carried out by SCR Mining and Tunneling. [32]

In 2007, Vale announced the exploration drilling increased the proven and probable reserves at the Creighton mine to 32 million tons of 2.2% nickel and 2 to 2.3% copper grading, up from the previously defined 17 million tons of 3.2% nickel and 2.5% copper grading. [33] This exploration also led to the discovery of high grade PGE ore at the 2150 and 3200 meter mine levels. [33]

In 2013, Phase 3 of the Creighton Mine Deep project was underway. [6] This expansion project will cost $247 million, will increase the mine's depth to 8020 feet (2444 meters), and is estimated to increase the mine's lifespan to at least 2027. [6]

Environmental projects and concerns

Diesel to electric

In 2018, Vale announced they are transitioning their deep zone fleet of vehicles from diesel to electric. [34] This is an ongoing project, as old equipment is replaced with electric equipment once it has reached the end of its life. [34] This move towards electric vehicles not only reduces the environmental impact of the mine, but also allows for a reduction in heat generation and diesel contamination by these vehicles at depth. [34]

Groundwater treatment

Groundwater naturally flows through the tailings area of the Creighton mine, posing an environmental contamination risk.[ citation needed ] To protect against contamination, groundwater from the tailings area is pumped to and treated at water treatment plants.[ citation needed ] Once treated, the water is discharged into the local watershed.[ citation needed ]

Underground greenhouse

The 4800 foot level of Creighton Mine is a fully automated greenhouse. [6] This greenhouse grows approximately 100 000 jack and red pine trees, which will be used in regreening and remediation of the Sudbury basin. [6]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ore</span> Rock with valuable metals, minerals and elements

Ore is natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals concentrated above background levels, typically containing metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a profit. The grade of ore refers to the concentration of the desired material it contains. The value of the metals or minerals a rock contains must be weighed against the cost of extraction to determine whether it is of sufficiently high grade to be worth mining and is therefore considered an ore. A complex ore is one containing more than one valuable mineral.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pentlandite</span> Iron–nickel sulfide

Pentlandite is an iron–nickel sulfide with the chemical formula (Fe,Ni)9S8. Pentlandite has a narrow variation range in nickel to iron ratios (Ni:Fe), but it is usually described as 1:1. In some cases, this ratio is skewed by the presence of pyrrhotite inclusions. It also contains minor cobalt, usually at low levels as a fraction of weight.

The platinum-group metals (PGMs), also known as the platinoids, platinides, platidises, platinum group, platinum metals, platinum family or platinum-group elements (PGEs), are six noble, precious metallic elements clustered together in the periodic table. These elements are all transition metals in the d-block.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nickeline</span> Nickel arsenide mineral

Nickeline or niccolite is a mineral consisting primarily of nickel arsenide (NiAs). The naturally-occurring mineral contains roughly 43.9% nickel and 56.1% arsenic by mass, but composition of the mineral may vary slightly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sudbury Basin</span> Third largest verified astrobleme on earth, remains of an Paleoproterozoic Era impact

The Sudbury Basin, also known as Sudbury Structure or the Sudbury Nickel Irruptive, is a major geological structure in Ontario, Canada. It is the third-largest known impact crater or astrobleme on Earth, as well as one of the oldest. The crater was formed 1.849 billion years ago in the Paleoproterozoic era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulfide mineral</span> Class of minerals containing sulfide or disulfide as the major anion

The sulfide minerals are a class of minerals containing sulfide (S2−) or disulfide (S22−) as the major anion. Some sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, the sulfarsenides and the sulfosalts. Sulfide minerals are inorganic compounds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sperrylite</span>

Sperrylite is a platinum arsenide mineral with the chemical formula PtAs2 and is an opaque metallic tin white mineral which crystallizes in the isometric system with the pyrite group structure. It forms cubic, octahedral or pyritohedral crystals in addition to massive and reniform habits. It has a Mohs hardness of 6–7 and a very high specific gravity of 10.6.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bushveld Igneous Complex</span> Large early layered igneous intrusion

The Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC) is the largest layered igneous intrusion within the Earth's crust. It has been tilted and eroded forming the outcrops around what appears to be the edge of a great geological basin: the Transvaal Basin. It is approximately 2 billion years old and is divided into four different limbs: the northern, southern, eastern, and western limbs. The Bushveld Complex comprises the Rustenburg Layered suite, the Lebowa Granites and the Rooiberg Felsics, that are overlain by the Karoo sediments. The site was first publicised around 1897 by Gustaaf Molengraaff who found the native South African tribes residing in and around the area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Layered intrusion</span>

A layered intrusion is a large sill-like body of igneous rock which exhibits vertical layering or differences in composition and texture. These intrusions can be many kilometres in area covering from around 100 km2 (39 sq mi) to over 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi) and several hundred metres to over one kilometre (3,300 ft) in thickness. While most layered intrusions are Archean to Proterozoic in age, they may be any age such as the Cenozoic Skaergaard intrusion of east Greenland or the Rum layered intrusion in Scotland. Although most are ultramafic to mafic in composition, the Ilimaussaq intrusive complex of Greenland is an alkalic intrusion.

Kambalda type komatiitic nickel ore deposits are a class of magmatic iron-nickel-copper-platinum-group element ore deposit in which the physical processes of komatiite volcanology serve to deposit, concentrate and enrich a Fe-Ni-Cu-(PGE) sulfide melt within the lava flow environment of an erupting komatiite volcano.

The Emily Ann and Maggie Hays nickel deposits are situated 117 km west of the town of Norseman, Western Australia, within the Lake Johnston Greenstone Belt.

Violarite (Fe2+Ni23+S4) is a supergene sulfide mineral associated with the weathering and oxidation of primary pentlandite nickel sulfide ore minerals.

Copperfields Mine, originally known as Temagami Mine, is an abandoned copper and silver mine on Temagami Island in Lake Temagami, Ontario, Canada. The mine opened in 1955 and comprises both underground and surface workings within a sulfide ore body. Situated in Phyllis Township, the mine produced 34,000,000 dollars Canadian with 80 million pounds of copper, 230,028 ounces of silver and 13,271 ounces of gold. It was considered to be the largest deposit of nearly pure chalcopyrite ever discovered in Canada. A mill was not initially needed because the ore was 28% copper. The mine closed in 1972 and is now flooded by water. Ruins of the Copperfields mill are present as foundations. It is possible to find mineral specimens in the spoil heaps of the old mine, such as chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, malachite, dolomite, hessite, merenskyite, millerite, palladium, quartz and others. The Lake Temagami Access Road was created to ship ore from the mine site.

The Widgiemooltha Komatiite is a formation of komatiite in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kanichee Mine</span>

The Kanichee Mine, also less commonly known as the Ajax Mine, is an abandoned base metal and precious metal mine, located in the Temagami region of northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is near the small unincorporated community of Temagami North, accessed by the Kanichee Mine Road from Highway 11. The Kanichee Mine zone has been explored and mined discontinuously from as early as 1910. During the 20th century, it operated and closed down at least three times, with the most recent being from 1973 to 1976. To date, the discontinuous operation of Kanichee Mine has produced 4.2 million pounds of metal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temagami Greenstone Belt</span> Greenstone belt in Northeastern Ontario, Canada

The Temagami Greenstone Belt (TGB) is a small 2.7 billion year old greenstone belt in the Temagami region of Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It represents a feature of the Superior craton, an ancient and stable part of the Earth's lithosphere that forms the core of the North American continent and Canadian Shield. The belt is composed of metamorphosed volcanic rocks that range in composition from basalt to rhyolite. These form the east-northeast trend of the belt and are overlain by metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. They were created during several volcanic episodes involving a variety of eruptive styles ranging from passive lava eruptions to viscous explosive eruptions.

The Lac des Îles igneous complex of northwestern Ontario, Canada is a layered gabbroic intrusion which is the host for the largest palladium orebody in Canada. The orebody is currently being mined as a combined open pit and underground operation by North American Palladium.

Carl Michael Lesher is an American geologist. He is an authority on the geology and origin of nickel-copper-platinum group element deposits, especially those associated with komatiites, their physical volcanology and localization, the geochemistry and petrology of associated rocks, and controls on their composition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nickel mine</span> Mine that produces nickel

A nickel mine is a mine that produces nickel. Some mines produce nickel primarily, while some mines produce nickel as a side-product of some other metal that has a higher concentration in the ore.

Gordon Lake Mine was an underground copper mine near Werner Lake in the Kenora District of Ontario Canada.

References

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  18. ↑ "Top Five Open Cut Mines from Around the World | MEC Mining". 2022-06-28. Retrieved 2024-02-03.
  19. ↑ "Top Five Open Cut Mines from Around the World | MEC Mining". 2022-06-28. Retrieved 2024-02-03.
  20. 1 2 "Form 20-F ANNUAL REPORT PURSUANT TO SECTION 13 OR 15(d) OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934",Vale S.E., 2019-12-31 retrieved 2021-01-21.
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  23. ↑ "Seismotectonics Research: An investigation of the Deep Creighton structural system and its relationship to mine-induced seismicity, Sudbury, Ontario". www.queensu.ca. Archived from the original on 2018-09-22. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  24. ↑ "Two earthquakes likely caused by deep drilling at Garson and Creighton, Vale says | CBC News". CBC. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  25. 1 2 Média, Bell. "Vale Confirms 3 Seismic Events at Sudbury Creighton Mine". www.iheartradio.ca. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
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  28. 1 2 "Steel being erected for new lab at Creighton mine site - constructconnect.com". Daily Commercial News. 2004-08-27. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  29. ↑ "SNOLAB Receives over $40 million in funding from Canada for its Unique Scientific Research at Vale's Creighton Mine in Sudbury". www.vale.com. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  30. ↑ "NICKEL RESOURCES - Creighton hiding more metal at depth". Canadian Mining Journal. 2007-06-27. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  31. ↑ Lacey, Keith (2006-08-22). "New life for Garson mine". Northern Life. Retrieved 2010-10-29. Creighton Deepening Project: Two projects are underway to allow deeper mining at Creigton Mine. The first is an $8-million, four-year diamond drill exploration program that will allow for ore tonnage to be defined down to the 10,000-foot level. The second is a $48-million expansion project that will establish production ore at the 7,810-foot level and bring 1.8 million tons of high-grade ore into production from 2006–2011.
  32. ↑ Mining, S. C. R. "Creighton Mine – SCR Mining and Tunnelling" . Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  33. 1 2 Ferreira, Monica (2007-06-20). "CVRD's nickel reserves increase at Sudbury". saladeimprensa.vale.com. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
  34. 1 2 3 "Vale to transition Creighton deep zone to all-electric fleet". magazine.cim.org. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
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