Clinical psychology is an integration of human science,behavioral science,theory,and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding,preventing,and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment,clinical formulation,and psychotherapy,although clinical psychologists also engage in research,teaching,consultation,forensic testimony,and program development and administration. In many countries,clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
Counseling psychology is a psychological specialty that began with a focus on vocational counseling,but later moved its emphasis to adjustment counseling,and then expanded to cover all normal psychology and psychotherapy. There are many subcategories for counseling psychology,such as marriage and family counseling,rehabilitation counseling,clinical mental health counseling,educational counseling,etc. In each setting,they are all required to follow the same guidelines.
Cultural psychologyis the study of how cultures reflect and shape their members' psychological processes.
Indigenous psychology is defined by Kim and Berry as "the scientific study of human behavior or mind that is native,that is not transported from other regions,and that is designed for its people." There is a strong emphasis on how one's actions are influenced by the environment surrounding them as well as the aspects that make it up. This would include analyzing the context,in addition to the content that combine to make the domain that one is living in. The context would consist of the family,social,cultural,and ecological pieces and the content would consist of the meaning,values,and beliefs. Since the mid 1970s,there has been outcry about the traditional views from psychologists across the world,from Africa to Australia and many places in between about how the methods only reflect what would work in Europe and the Americas.
Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes,including both their variability and invariance,under diverse cultural conditions. Through expanding research methodologies to recognize cultural variance in behavior,language,and meaning it seeks to extend and develop psychology. Since psychology as an academic discipline was developed largely in North America and Europe,some psychologists became concerned that constructs and phenomena accepted as universal were not as invariant as previously assumed,especially since many attempts to replicate notable experiments in other cultures had varying success. Since there are questions as to whether theories dealing with central themes,such as affect,cognition,conceptions of the self,and issues such as psychopathology,anxiety,and depression,may lack external validity when "exported" to other cultural contexts,cross-cultural psychology re-examines them. It does so using methodologies designed to factor in cultural differences so as to account for cultural variance. Some critics have pointed to methodological flaws in cross-cultural psychological research,and claim that serious shortcomings in the theoretical and methodological bases used impede,rather than help,the scientific search for universal principles in psychology. Cross-cultural psychologists are turning more to the study of how differences (variance) occur,rather than searching for universals in the style of physics or chemistry.
Microaggression is a term used for commonplace verbal,behavioral or environmental slights,whether intentional or unintentional,that communicate hostile,derogatory,or negative attitudes toward those of different races,cultures,beliefs,or genders. The term was coined by Harvard University psychiatrist Chester M. Pierce in 1970 to describe insults and dismissals which he regularly witnessed non-black Americans inflicting on African Americans. By the early 21st century,use of the term was applied to the casual disparagement of any socially marginalized group,including LGBT people,poor people,and disabled people. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue defines microaggressions as "brief,everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to certain individuals because of their group membership". The persons making the comments may be otherwise well-intentioned and unaware of the potential impact of their words.
William E. Cross Jr. is a theorist and researcher in the field of ethnic identity development,specifically Black identity development. He is best known for his nigrescence model,first detailed in a 1971 publication,and his book,Shades of Black,published in 1991. Cross's nigrescence model expanded upon the work of Black psychologists who came before him and created an important foundation for racial/ethnic identity psychology. It has proved a framework for both individual and collective social change. Throughout his career,Cross has been concerned with racial/ethnic identity theory and the negative effects of Western thought and science on the psychology of Black Americans,specifically the need for “psychological liberation under conditions of oppression.”
Madonna G. Constantine was an American psychology and education professor who formerly taught at Teachers College,Columbia University. She was fired in 2008 on grounds of plagiarism.
The Institute for International and Cross-Cultural Psychology (IICCP) at St. Francis College,New York City was founded in 1998. During its 21 years of existence it has become known for the advancement of cross-cultural psychology and international psychology. Supported by an International Advisory Board of psychologists from six countries,members of the institute have engaged in a series of research projects,edited books on a broad variety of topics in international psychology,sponsored numerous conferences,symposia and colloquia,given lectures at many conferences and institutions around the world,and introduced innovative curriculum development.
Black psychology,also known as African-American psychology and African/Black psychology,is a scientific field that focuses on how people of African descent know and experience the world. The field,particularly in the United States,largely emerged as a result of the lack of understanding of the psychology of Black people under traditional,Westernized notions of psychology. Overall,the field combines perspectives from both Black studies and traditional psychology encapsulating a range of definitions and approaches while simultaneously proposing its own framework of understanding.
Cultural differences can interact with positive psychology to create great variation,potentially impacting positive psychology interventions. Culture differences have an impact on the interventions of positive psychology. Culture influences how people seek psychological help,their definitions of social structure,and coping strategies. Cross cultural positive psychology is the application of the main themes of positive psychology from cross-cultural or multicultural perspectives.
Adelbert H. Jenkins is an African American clinical psychologist who is known for his humanistic approach to Black psychology at the start of the field in the early 1970s. Jenkins was also one of the 28 founding members of the National Association of Black Psychologists,along with other notable psychologists such as Robert V. Guthrie and Joseph White. He is currently an associate professor of psychology at New York University.
Janet E. Helms is an American research psychologist known for her study of ethnic minority issues. A scholar,author and educator,she is most known for her racial identity theory that is applied to multiple disciplines,including education and law. She received the 2006 Award for Distinguished Contributions to Education and Training in Psychology from the American Psychological Association.
Joseph G. Ponterotto is an American psychologist,author and professor. He is currently coordinator of the Mental Health Counseling Program at Fordham University's Graduate School of Education. He is a licensed psychologist and mental health counsellor,as well as a psychobiographer and multicultural consultant. His research interests include multicultural counselling,education and psychobiography.
White Racial Identity Development is a field of research looking at how white identity can develop and affect a person throughout their life. Through the process,White people become more aware of their role in American society,with the power and privilege they hold through systematic racism. Dr. Janet Helms created the White Racial Identity Model in 1992 to provide a way to categorize white racial identity. Another theory,the White Racial Consciousness Theory was created as an alternative to Helm's model.
Beverly Greene is a professor in the Department of Psychology at St. John's University. She is a clinical psychologist known for her work on sexism,racism,and analyzing the intersectionality of social identities. As a specialist in the psychology of women and of gender and racial issues in the practice of psychotherapy,Greene has also created many public health frameworks for understanding mental health in marginalized communities. She is the author of close to 100 psychological literature publications. Greene is involved with the Association for Women in Psychology and the Society for the Psychology of Women. She is one of sixteen women to have received the Distinguished Publication Award (DPA) from the Association for Women in Psychology in 2008.
Multicultural counseling is a type of counseling where the therapist addresses the struggles of a client whose race,gender,socioeconomic background,religion,or any other part of their identity doesn't fit in with the majority. Minorities have a history of dealing with racism and oppression,and in this lens,a counselor that doesn't take that information into account isn't able to effectively counsel. In the therapy session,the sociocultural environment of the individual and issues of power and privilege are given attention. This is a strengths based approach;counselors focus on positive change in both the process and the outcome.
Stanley Sue was an American clinical psychologist known for his contributions to the field of multicultural studies,specifically in relation to the mental health issues of ethnic minorities and the need for cultural competence in the treatment of psychological disorders. Sue was a Distinguished Professor of Clinical Psychology at Palo Alto University. His work is often cited in discussions about the educational achievements of Asian Americans and the model minority stereotype.
Kevin Cokley is an African-American counselling psychologist,academic and researcher. He is University Diversity and Social Transformation Professor,Associate Chair of Diversity Initiatives,Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor. Previously he was the Oscar and Anne Mauzy Regents Professor of Educational Research and Development,Department Chair of Educational Psychology,and Professor of African and African Diaspora Studies at the University of Texas at Austin,where he directed the Institute for Urban Policy Research &Analysis. He was a Fellow of the UT System Academy of Distinguished Teachers and a Distinguished Teaching Professor at the University of Texas at Austin.
Lillian Comas-Díaz is an American psychologist and researcher of multiethnic and multicultural communities. She was the 2019 winner of American Psychological Association (APA) Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Practice of Psychology. In 2000,she received the APA Award for Distinguished Senior Career Contribution to the Public Interest.
