Durinskia

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Durinskia
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Myzozoa
Superclass: Dinoflagellata
Class: Dinophyceae
Order: Peridiniales
Family: Kryptoperidiniaceae
Genus: Durinskia
S.Carty & E.R.Cox, 1986

Durinskia is a genus of dinoflagellates that can be found in freshwater and marine environments. This genus was created to accommodate its type species, Durinskia baltica, after major classification discrepancies were found. While Durinskia species appear to be typical dinoflagellates that are armored with cellulose plates called theca, the presence of a pennate diatom-derived tertiary endosymbiont is their most defining characteristic. This genus is significant to the study of endosymbiotic events and organelle integration [1] since structures and organelle genomes in the tertiary plastids are not reduced. Like some dinoflagellates, species in Durinskia may cause blooms.

Contents

Etymology

The genus Durinskia was named in honor of Rose Durinski by Carty and Cox in 1986. [2]

History

The representative species of Durinskia is Durinskia baltica, which was also the impetus for the genus’ creation in 1986. [2] Durinskia baltica was originally described as a brackish water unicellular dinoflagellate and named as Glenodinium cinctum by Levander in 1892. [3] Upon revisiting his work in 1894, Levander renamed Glenodinium cinctum as Glenodinium balticum after revising his previous work. [4] In 1910, Lemmermann reclassified Glenodinium balticum under a freshwater dinoflagellate subgenus called Cleistoperidinium. [5] One of the defining character of Cleistoperidinium is its lack of an apical pore, a criterion Durinskia baltica does not fulfil. To rectify this mistake, Durinskia baltica, known then as Glenodinium balticum, was transferred into the subgenus of Orthoperidinium in 1937. [6] Species within Orthoperidinium are characterized by their four-sided apical plate which is not a character of Durinskia baltica either. The taxonomic hierarchy changed, Durinskia baltica, referred as Peridinium balticum at the time, was transferred to the genus of Peridiniopsis (Bourrelly 1968) and renamed as Peridiniopsis balticum. [7] Upon an investigation conducted by Carty and Cox (1986), Durinskia baltica was determined to belong in a different genus than Peridinium. [2] While the representative or type species of both Peridinium and Durinskia baltica have five cingular plates, the irregular arrangement of the cingular plates in D. baltica differs from the typical cingular plate alignment with postcingular plates in Peridinium. [2] [8] Note that cingular plates are cellulose plates that make up the transverse groove, cingulum, in the outer armor of the organism, whereas precingular plates are plates that form part of the outer armor that is above the cingulum, and postcingular plates are plates that form the outer armor that is below the cingulum. More importantly, all species in Peridinium have seven precingular plates rather than six precingular plates as in D. baltica. [2] [8] After the discovery of these significant morphological differences, a new genus named Durinskia was accepted to accommodate D. baltica. Because some species previously described were misclassified under other genus prior to the establishment of Durinskia, many species that belong in Durinskia have yet to be reclassification or discovered. Durinskia capensis is one of the species that was recently discovered by revisiting previous literature whereas Durinskia agilis was reclassified based on morphology and molecular genetics in 2012. [9]

Habitat and ecology

As of 2017, there are at least four species classified under the genus Durinskia. The known species of this genus, D.baltica, D. oculata, D. agilis and D. capensis, can be isolated from a variety of freshwater and marine habitats. The type species of genus Durinskia, D. baltica, inhabits brackish water and marine environment in Europe, North America, South America, Oceania and Pacific Islands. [8] D. oculata can be found at its type locality (Vltava river at Prague [10] ), but also in Ampola Lake in Italy. Orange-red blooms of D. capensis are observed in salty tidal pools along the west coast of Kommetjie, Cape Province, South Africa. [8] D. agilis is a species of sand-dwelling benthic marine dinoflagellate first isolated from the coast of Kuwait. [11] The presence of tertiary plastids (chloroplasts) indicates that species in Durinskia are phototrophic. Although predation is not recorded in recent literature, the relatively recent acquisition of its tertiary plastid in Durinskia indicates organisms must have been trophic at the time of its tertiary endosymbiosis.

Description of the organism

As this genus containing species is part of the subphylum Alveolata and phylum Dinoflagellata, it has the defining characteristics of these groups. As in all alveolates, species in Durinskia have flattened vesicles known as alveoli under the plasma membrane. [12] One of Durinskia’s shared characteristics with some dinoflagellates is the cellulose plates contained in alveoli forming the outer armor, theca. The other shared characteristics between Durinskia and dinoflagellates include the presence of condensed chromosomes in the large nucleus called the dinokaryon, and the two surface grooves that each bears one flagellum. The transverse surface groove is called the cingulum which runs laterally around the whole organism, whereas the other groove, sulcus, starts from ventral midpoint of the cingulum vertically down to the posterior end of the organism typically. [8] The cingulum is a useful morphological feature in discerning species. For instance, the angle of descent of the cingulum varies among species. The theca is also separated by the cingulum into epitheca for theca above the cingulum and hypotheca for theca below the cingulum. The red eyespot functions as a lens that allows organisms to respond to visual stimulation. [13] While eyespots and plastids are found in both groups, the origin of these structures differ as discussed the tertiary plastid section. The following are some major discerning features of Durinskia. Species in Durinskia are mostly ovoid. The apical pore in one Durinskia species is a slit-like pore that is located at the apex of the epitheca. The epitheca is either similar in size or slightly longer than the hypotheca. There are no ornaments on the smooth and thin theca in this genus. [2] The cingulum slightly descends downward toward the medial of the organism by around half its width. The sulcus is narrow and may widen as it extends to the posterior end of the organism as in D. agilis. [2] [8] [11] The plates that form the theca immediately above and directly below the cingulum are called the precingular plates and postcingular plates respectively. [2] In the genus Durinskia, organisms have 6 precingular plates and 5 postcingular plates; the cingulum and sulcus is composed 5 unequal plates and 6 plates respectively. [2] [8] [10] Although the shape of the plates varies among species, all species have cingular plates that do not align with the postcingular plates. [2] [8] Since the position of the large nucleus (dinokaryon), shape of the eye spot, and the number and shape of chloroplasts may vary among species, the most reliable method of identification is to observe tabulation pattern of thecal plate. [12] The most interesting feature of Durinskia is the presence of its tertiary plastid which originated from a pennate diatom. [14] [1] Durinskia’s tertiary plastid is sometimes confused with the tertiary plastid in Peridiniopsis penardii, which originated from a centric diatom since both plastids have four membranes. [12] [14] As a reminder, a plastid is an endosymbiont that has been incorporated into the host as an essential organelle, and a pennate diatom is elongated in valve view whereas a centric diatom is circular. [9]

Tertiary plastid

As mentioned above, the origin of the plastids in Durinskia is different from the origin of the secondary plastid present in other typical dinoflagellates. [14] [1] In multiple secondary endosymbiotic events, an alga with a primary plastid was integrated into a eukaryotic host as a secondary plastid. [14] The common red plastid found in dinoflagellates is a red secondary plastid that is different as it is bound by three rather than four membrane. [14] These red plastids also contain peridinin, a major carotenoid pigment specific to dinoflagellates. [12] In Durinskia, the function of the secondary red plastid is replaced by incorporating a diatom and its diatom's plastid as a tertiary endosymbiont. [14] The diatom-derived tertiary plastid in Durinskia is not as reduced as other plastids where the secondary host components are completely reduced and only the plastid remains. [12] In addition to retaining the nuclear genome and the large nucleus of the diatom, the diatom's mitochondria and mitochondrial genome, cytosolic ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum are retained. However, the diatom can no longer function as a separate entity as it has lost its cell wall, motility and ability to mitotically divide. [15] Moreover, the synchronized division of the cryptic diatom and the host Durinksia indicates the process of integration. Durinskia’s tertiary plastid has retained thylakoids that stack in threes and is found to have Chlorophyll a, c1, and c2 and fucoxanthin, a pigment expected of a diatom [14] It has been proposed that the original secondary red plastid in Durinskia has been repurposed as an eyespot after the acquisition of the tertiary plastid. This proposition stems from the observation that Durinskia eyespots resemble the membrane surrounding peridinin-containing plastids as in dinoflagellate's secondary red plastids, and both structures are both triple-membrane bound [14]

Importance in research and ecology

The retention of the nuclear and mitochondrial genome of the diatom-derived plastid in Durinskia has been the well-studied in studies that investigate tertiary endosymbiosis events and symbiogenesis. In Cape Peninsula, Durinskia capensis blooms causes orange-red blooms in tidal pools. [11]

List of species

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dinoflagellate</span> Unicellular algae with two flagella

The dinoflagellates are a monophyletic group of single-celled eukaryotes constituting the phylum Dinoflagellata and are usually considered protists. Dinoflagellates are mostly marine plankton, but they also are common in freshwater habitats. Their populations vary with sea surface temperature, salinity, and depth. Many dinoflagellates are photosynthetic, but a large fraction of these are in fact mixotrophic, combining photosynthesis with ingestion of prey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dinokaryota</span> Superclass of single-celled organisms

Dinokaryota is a main grouping of dinoflagellates. They include all species where the nucleus remains a dinokaryon throughout the entire cell cycle, which is typically dominated by the haploid stage. All the "typical" dinoflagellates, such as Peridinium and Gymnodinium, belong here. Others are more unusual, including some that are colonial, amoeboid, or parasitic. Symbiodinium contains the symbiotic zooxanthellae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nucleomorph</span>

Nucleomorphs are small, vestigial eukaryotic nuclei found between the inner and outer pairs of membranes in certain plastids. They are thought to be vestiges of primitive red and green algal nuclei that were engulfed by a larger eukaryote. Because the nucleomorph lies between two sets of membranes, nucleomorphs support the endosymbiotic theory and are evidence that the plastids containing them are complex plastids. Having two sets of membranes indicate that the plastid, a prokaryote, was engulfed by a eukaryote, an alga, which was then engulfed by another eukaryote, the host cell, making the plastid an example of secondary endosymbiosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kleptoplasty</span> Form of algae symbiosis

Kleptoplasty or kleptoplastidy is a process in symbiotic relationships whereby plastids, notably chloroplasts from algae, are sequestered by the host. The word is derived from Kleptes (κλέπτης) which is Greek for thief. The alga is eaten normally and partially digested, leaving the plastid intact. The plastids are maintained within the host, temporarily continuing photosynthesis and benefiting the host.

<i>Ceratium</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

The genus Ceratium is restricted to a small number of freshwater dinoflagellate species. Previously the genus contained also a large number of marine dinoflagellate species. However, these marine species have now been assigned to a new genus called Tripos. Ceratium dinoflagellates are characterized by their armored plates, two flagella, and horns. They are found worldwide and are of concern due to their blooms.

<i>Karenia</i> (dinoflagellate) Genus of single-celled organisms

Karenia is a genus that consists of unicellular, photosynthetic, planktonic organisms found in marine environments. The genus currently consists of 12 described species. They are best known for their dense toxic algal blooms and red tides that cause considerable ecological and economical damage; some Karenia species cause severe animal mortality. One species, Karenia brevis, is known to cause respiratory distress and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) in humans.

<i>Peridinium</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Peridinium is a genus of motile, marine and freshwater dinoflagellates. Their morphology is considered typical of the armoured dinoflagellates, and their form is commonly used in diagrams of a dinoflagellate's structure. Peridinium can range from 30 to 70 μm in diameter, and has very thick thecal plates.

<i>Guillardia</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Guillardia is a genus of marine biflagellate cryptomonad algae with a plastid obtained through secondary endosymbiosis of a red alga.

Polarella is a dinoflagellate, and, when described in 1999, was the only extant genus of the Suessiaceae family. Since then, multiple extant genera in the family have been described. The genus was described in 1999 by Marina Montresor, Gabriele Procaccini, and Diane K. Stoecker, and contains only one species, Polarella glacialis. Polarella inhabits channels within ice formations in both the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions, where it plays an important role as a primary producer. Polarella is a thecate dinoflagellate, wherein the cell has an outer covering of cellulose plates, which are arranged in nine latitudinal series. The general morphology of Polarella is similar to that of a typical dinoflagellate. and Polarella has a zygotic life history, wherein it alternates between a motile vegetative phase and a non-motile spiny cyst. While it is thought that the cysts of Polarella have lost their ability to form fossils, the cyst life cycle stage has acted as link to extinct members of the Suessiaceae family.

<i>Ornithocercus</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Ornithocercus is a genus of planktonic dinoflagellate that is known for its complex morphology that features considerable lists growing from its thecal plates, giving an attractive appearance. Discovered in 1883, this genus has a small number of species currently categorized but is widespread in tropical and sub-tropical oceans. The genus is marked by exosymbiotic bacteria gardens under its lists, the inter-organismal dynamics of which are a current field of research. As they reside only in warm water, the genus has been used as a proxy for climate change and has potential to be an indicator species for environmental change if found in novel environments.

<i>Dinophysis</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Dinophysis is a genus of dinoflagellates common in tropical, temperate, coastal and oceanic waters. It was first described in 1839 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg.

<i>Alexandrium</i> (dinoflagellate) Genus of single-celled organisms

Alexandrium is a genus of dinoflagellates. It contains some of the dinoflagellate species most harmful to humans, because it produces toxic harmful algal blooms (HAB) that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans. There are about 30 species of Alexandrium that form a clade, defined primarily on morphological characters in their thecal plates.

<i>Dinophysis acuminata</i> Species of dinoflagellate

Dinophysis acuminata is a marine plankton species of dinoflagellates that is found in coastal waters of the north Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The genus Dinophysis includes both phototrophic and heterotrophic species. D. acuminata is one of several phototrophic species of Dinophysis classed as toxic, as they produce okadaic acid which can cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Okadiac acid is taken up by shellfish and has been found in the soft tissue of mussels and the liver of flounder species. When contaminated animals are consumed, they cause severe diarrhoea. D. acuminata blooms are constant threat to and indication of diarrhoeatic shellfish poisoning outbreaks.

<i>Dinophysis acuta</i> Species of dinoflagellate

Dinophysis acuta is a species of flagellated planktons belonging to the genus Dinophysis. It is one of the few unusual photosynthetic protists that acquire plastids from algae by endosymbiosis. By forming massive blooms, particularly in late summer and spring, it causes red tides. It produces toxic substances and the red tides cause widespread infection of seafood, particularly crabs and mussels. When infected animals are consumed, severe diarrhoea occurs. The clinical symptom is called diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. The main chemical toxins were identified in 2006 as okadaic acid and pectenotoxins. They can produce non-fatal or fatal amounts of toxins in their predators, which can become toxic to humans.

Ceratocorys is a genus of photosynthetic free-living marine dinoflagellates first described in 1883 by Friedrich Stein. Currently consisting of 12 species, this genus is typically found at the water surface in tropical and subtropical ocean regions, and has both low nutrient requirements and salinity sensitivity. All species in the genus have a theca; 29 membrane-bound armored plates with anywhere from 2 to 6 spines protruding from the cell. They reproduce through binary fission at temperatures above 20 °C during asexual reproduction and whether or not they have sexual reproduction is not known. Due to its bioluminescent capabilities, the type species of this genus, Ceratocorys horrida, has many practical applications. Its bioluminescent response to water flow means it can act as a model organism for understanding planktonic reaction to water movement. It is also sensitive to environmental molecules; by measuring the bioluminescent response it can be used in rapid toxicity tests to detect the levels of different contaminants in water systems. Its presence is also an indicator of different oceanic phenomena like upwellings or tropical waters.

Coolia is a marine dinoflagellate genus in the family Ostreopsidaceae. It was first described by Meunier in 1919. There are currently seven identified species distributed globally in tropical and temperate coastal waters. Coolia is a benthic or epiphytic type dinoflagellate: it can be found adhered to sediment or other organisms but it is not limited to these substrates. It can also be found in a freely motile form in the water column. The life cycle of Coolia involves an asexual stage where the cell divides by binary fission and a sexual stage where cysts are produced. Some of the species, for example, Coolia tropicalis and Coolia malayensis, produce toxins that can potentially cause shellfish poisoning in humans.

<i>Haplozoon</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Haplozoon (/hæploʊ’zoʊən/) are unicellular endo-parasites, primarily infecting maldanid polychaetes. They belong to Dinoflagellata but differ from typical dinoflagellates. Most dinoflagellates are free-living and possess two flagella. Instead, Haplozoon belong to a 5% minority of parasitic dinoflagellates that are not free-living. Additionally, the Haplozoon trophont stage is particularly unique due to an apparent lack of flagella. The presence of flagella or remnant structures is the subject of ongoing research.

Torodinium (ˌtɔɹoʊˈdɪniəm) is a genus of unarmored dinoflagellates and comprises two species, Torodinium robustum and the type species Torodinium teredo. The establishment of Torodinium, as well as the characterization of the majority of its morphology, occurred in 1921 and further advances since have been slow. Lack of research is largely due to its extremely fragile and easily deformed nature, which also renders fossil records implausible. The genus was originally characterized by torsion of the sulcus and a posterior cingulum. Since then, new distinctive features have been discovered including an extremely reduced hyposome, a longitudinally ribbed episome, and a canal on the dextro-lateral side. Further investigation into the function of many anatomical features is still necessary for this genus.

Lepidodinium is a genus of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Gymnodiniaceae. Lepidodinium is a genus of green dinoflagellates in the family Gymnodiniales. It contains two different species, Lepidodiniumchlorophorum and Lepidodinium viride. They are characterised by their green colour caused by a plastid derived from Pedinophyceae, a green algae group. This plastid has retained chlorophyll a and b, which is significant because it differs from the chlorophyll a and c usually observed in dinoflagellate peridinin plastids. They are the only known dinoflagellate genus to possess plastids derived from green algae. Lepidodinium chlorophorum is known to cause sea blooms, partially off the coast of France, which has dramatic ecological and economic consequences. Lepidodinium produces some of the highest volumes of Transparent Exopolymer Particles of any phytoplankton, which can contribute to bivalve death and the creation of anoxic conditions in blooms, as well as playing an important role in carbon cycling in the ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protists in the fossil record</span>

A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor, the last eukaryotic common ancestor, the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists do not form a natural group, or clade. Therefore, some protists may be more closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists. However, like algae, invertebrates and protozoans, the grouping is used for convenience.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Carty S, Cox ER (June 1986). "Kansodinium gen. nov. and Durinskia gen. nov.: two genera of freshwater dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta)". Phycologia. 25 (2): 197–204. doi:10.2216/i0031-8884-25-2-197.1.
  3. ↑ Levander KM (1892). "Notiz uber die Tafelung der Schalenmembran des Glenodinium cinctum Ehrenb". Zoologischer Anzeiger. 15: 405–408.
  4. ↑ Levander KM (1894). "Materialien zur Kenntniss der Wasserfauna in der Umgebung von Helsingfors, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Meeresfauna I. Protozoa". Acta Societas Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. 12: 1–115.
  5. ↑ Lemmermann E (1910). "Algen I (Schizophyceen, Flagellaten, Peridineen). III. Klasse. Peridiniales". Kryptogamen Flora der Mark Brandenburg. 3: 563–686.
  6. ↑ Schiller J (1937). Dinoflagellatae. Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. pp. 171–173.
  7. ↑ Bourrelly P (1968). "Notes sur les Péridiniens d'eau douce". Protistologica. 4: 15–16.
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  9. 1 2 Pienaar RN, Sakai H, Horiguchi T (March 2007). "Description of a new dinoflagellate with a diatom endosymbiont, Durinskia capensis sp. nov. (Peridiniales, Dinophyceae) from South Africa". Journal of Plant Research. 120 (2): 247–58. doi:10.1007/s10265-006-0047-y. PMID   17139418. S2CID   9491537.
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  13. ↑ Imanian B, Pombert JF, Keeling PJ (May 2010). "The complete plastid genomes of the two 'dinotoms' Durinskia baltica and Kryptoperidinium foliaceum". PLOS ONE. 5 (5): e10711. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...510711I. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010711 . PMC   2873285 . PMID   20502706.
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  15. ↑ Imanian B, Carpenter KJ, Keeling PJ (2007). "Mitochondrial genome of a tertiary endosymbiont retains genes for electron transport proteins". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 54 (2): 146–53. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2007.00245.x. PMID   17403155. S2CID   20393495.
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