Gambierdiscus

Last updated

Gambierdiscus
Gambierdiscus toxicus NOAA.png
Gambierdiscus toxicus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Myzozoa
Superclass: Dinoflagellata
Class: Dinophyceae
Order: Gonyaulacales
Family: Ostreopsidaceae
Genus: Gambierdiscus
Adachi & Fukuyo, 1979
Species

See text

Diversity
12 species

Gambierdiscus is a genus of marine dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins, a type of toxin that causes the foodborne illness known as ciguatera. [1] They are usually epiphytic on macroalgae growing on coral reefs. [2]

Contents

Morphology

Gambierdiscus cells generally have a lenticular shape with a depression on the ventral side of the cell, from where the two dissimilar flagella arise. [2] Gambierdiscus cells have an orange to brown colour due to the assessory pigments peridinin, diadinoxanthin and dinoxanthin. [3]

Distribution

The marine dinoflagellate genus Gambierdiscus occurs globally in tropic and subtropic regions. It mainly grows attached to macroalgae and coralline turfalgae. Thus, it does not form visible surface blooms like many other harmful dinoflagellate species (red tides). A decrease in coral reefs due to bleaching, pollution or overfishing usually facilitates the growth of macroalgae, which can cause spreading of this epiphytic dinoflagellate genus.

Ciguatera

Several Gambierdicus species produce potent toxin such as ciguatoxin and maitotoxin, which cause ciguatera fish poisoning. [4] Humans often consume the toxins, as herbivorous fish, which feed on macroalgae, ingest the dinoflagellates. Afterwards, carnivorous fish, which are targeted by fishing industries, move the toxins further up the food chain. Ciguatera is the most common form of seafood poisoning caused by harmful algal blooms in the world and its incidence and range appear to spread. Best estimates indicate that more than 50,000 people are globally affected every year. Currently, G. polynesiensis, G. excentricus and G. silvae are recognized as being highly toxic, but ongoing and future research might identify more toxic metabolites in other species.

Predictions of ciguatera outbreaks are very challenging, as toxin profiles differ a lot between different species. [5] Additionally, our knowledge about the species diversity of Gambierdiscus is limited and the number of described Gambierdiscus species increases every year. Furthermore, toxin production of each species varies significantly over time and space due to changes in environmental conditions like nutrient concentrations and sea surface temperature. [6] An increase in sea surface temperature in the future might cause spreading of Gambierdiscus species further towards the poles and result in more cases of ciguatera fish poisoning.

Evolution and systematics

Species

The genus Gambierdiscus contains the following 12 species:

Phylogeny

The following cladograms illustrate the internal relationships between the Gambierdiscus species as analyzed in 2014, through a phylogenetic analysis using different regions of the large ribosomal subunit or LSUrRNA. [9]

LSUrRNA D1-D3 LSUrRNA D8-D10

G. yasumotoi

G. ruetzleri

G. carolinianus

Gambierdiscus sp. type 3

G. polynesiensis

Gambierdiscus sp. type 4

G. silvae

Related Research Articles

<i>Pfiesteria piscicida</i> Toxic dinoflagellate species

Pfiesteria piscicida is a dinoflagellate species of the genus Pfiesteria that some researchers claim was responsible for many harmful algal blooms in the 1980s and 1990s on the coast of North Carolina and Maryland. North Carolinian media in the 1990s referred to the organism as the cell from hell. It is known to populate estuaries. Piscicida means "fish-killer".

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), also known as ciguatera, is a foodborne illness caused by eating reef fish contaminated with ciguatoxins. Such individual fish are said to be ciguatoxic. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, numbness, itchiness, sensitivity to hot and cold, dizziness, and weakness. The onset of symptoms varies with the amount of toxin eaten. If a lot of toxins are consumed symptoms may appear within half an hour. If a low amount of toxins are consumed symptoms make take a few days to appear. Diarrhea may last up to four days. Symptoms may last a few weeks to a few months. Heart problems such as slow heart rate and low blood pressure may occur.

<i>Ceratium</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

The genus Ceratium is restricted to a small number of freshwater dinoflagellate species. Previously the genus contained also a large number of marine dinoflagellate species. However, these marine species have now been assigned to a new genus called Tripos. Ceratium dinoflagellates are characterized by their armored plates, two flagella, and horns. They are found worldwide and are of concern due to their blooms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Predatory dinoflagellate</span>

Predatory dinoflagellates are predatory heterotrophic or mixotrophic alveolates that derive some or most of their nutrients from digesting other organisms. About one half of dinoflagellates lack photosynthetic pigments and specialize in consuming other eukaryotic cells, and even photosynthetic forms are often predatory.

<i>Gambierdiscus toxicus</i> Species of protist

Gambierdiscus toxicus is a species of photosynthetic unicellular eukaryote belonging to the Alveolata, part of the SAR supergroup. It is a dinoflagellate which can cause the foodborne illness ciguatera, and is known to produce several natural polyethers including ciguatoxin, maitotoxin, gambieric acid, and gambierol. The species was discovered attached to the surface of brown macroalgae.

<i>Karenia</i> (dinoflagellate) Genus of single-celled organisms

Karenia is a genus that consists of unicellular, photosynthetic, planktonic organisms found in marine environments. The genus currently consists of 12 described species. They are best known for their dense toxic algal blooms and red tides that cause considerable ecological and economical damage; some Karenia species cause severe animal mortality. One species, Karenia brevis, is known to cause respiratory distress and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) in humans.

Luciella masanensis is a species of heterotrophic marine dinoflagellates.

Gambierdiscus belizeanus is a species of dinoflagellate, first found in Belize.

Gambierdiscus pacificus is a species of toxic dinoflagellate. It is 67–77 μm long and 60–76 μm wide dorsoventrally and its surface is smooth. It is identified by a four-sided apical pore plate surrounded by 30 round pores. Its first plate occupies 20% of the width of the hypotheca.

Gambierdiscus australes is a species of toxic dinoflagellate. It is 76–93 μm long and 65–85 μm wide dorsoventrally and its surface is smooth. It is identified by a broad ellipsoid apical pore plate surrounded by 31 round pores. Its first plate occupies 30% of the width of the hypotheca.

Gambierdiscus polynesiensis is a species of toxic dinoflagellate. It is 68–85 μm long and 64–75 μm wide dorsoventrally and its surface is smooth. It is identified by a large triangular apical pore plate, a narrow fish-hook opening surrounded by 38 round pores, and a large, broad posterior intercalary plate. Its first plate occupies 60% of the width of the hypotheca.

Gambierdiscus caribaeus is a species of toxic dinoflagellate, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

Gambierdiscus carolinianus is a species of toxic dinoflagellate, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

Gambierdiscus carpenteri is a species of toxic dinoflagellate, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

Gambierdiscus ruetzleri is a species of toxic dinoflagellates, which among others causes ciguatera fish poisoning. It is photosynthetic and epibenthic.

<i>Polykrikos</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Polykrikos is one of the genera of family Polykrikaceae that includes athecate pseudocolony-forming dinoflagellates. Polykrikos are characterized by a sophisticated ballistic apparatus, named the nematocyst-taeniocyst complex, which allows species to prey on a variety of organisms. Polykrikos have been found to regulate algal blooms as they feed on toxic dinoflagellates. However, there is also some data available on Polykrikos being toxic to fish.

<i>Ostreopsis</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Ostreopsis is a genus of free-living dinoflagellates found in marine environments. Some species are benthic; the planktonic species in the genus are known for the toxic algal blooms that they sometimes cause, threatening human and animal health.

Mireille Chinain is a marine scientist from French Polynesia.

Coolia is a marine dinoflagellate genus in the family Ostreopsidaceae. It was first described by Meunier in 1919. There are currently seven identified species distributed globally in tropical and temperate coastal waters. Coolia is a benthic or epiphytic type dinoflagellate: it can be found adhered to sediment or other organisms but it is not limited to these substrates. It can also be found in a freely motile form in the water column. The life cycle of Coolia involves an asexual stage where the cell divides by binary fission and a sexual stage where cysts are produced. Some of the species, for example, Coolia tropicalis and Coolia malayensis, produce toxins that can potentially cause shellfish poisoning in humans.

Ciguatoxin 1 or CTX-1 is a toxic chemical compound, the most common and potent type in the group of ciguatoxins. It is a large molecule consisting of polycyclic polyethers that can be found in certain types of fish in the Pacific Ocean. The compound is produced by Dinoflagellates Gambierdiscus toxicus and is passed on through the food chain by fish. The compound has no effect in fish but is toxic to humans. 

References

  1. ↑ Litaker, R. Wayne; Vandersea, Mark W.; Faust, Maria A.; Kibler, Steven R.; Nau, Amy W.; Holland, William C.; Chinain, Mireille; Holmes, Michael J.; Tester, Patricia A. (2010). "Global distribution of ciguatera causing dinoflagellates in the genus Gambierdiscus". Toxicon. 56 (5): 711–730. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.05.017. ISSN   0041-0101. PMID   20561539.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Litaker, R. Wayne; Vandersea, Mark W.; Faust, Maria A.; Kibler, Steven R.; Chinain, Mireille; Holmes, Michael J.; Holland, William C.; Tester, Patricia A. (2009). "Taxonomy of Gambierdiscus including four new species, Gambierdiscus caribaeus, Gambierdiscus carolinianus, Gambierdiscus carpenteri and Gambierdiscus ruetzleri (Gonyaulacales, Dinophyceae)". Phycologia. 48 (5): 344–390. Bibcode:2009Phyco..48..344L. doi:10.2216/07-15.1. ISSN   0031-8884. S2CID   86334317.
  3. ↑ Indelicato, Stephen R.; Watson, David A. (1986). "Identification of the photosynthetic pigments of the benthic dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus". Marine Fisheries Review. 48 (4): 44–47.
  4. ↑ Van Dolah, F M (March 2000). "Marine algal toxins: origins, health effects, and their increased occurrence". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108 (Suppl 1): 133–141. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108s1133. ISSN   0091-6765. PMC   1637787 . PMID   10698729.
  5. ↑ Parsons, Michael L.; Aligizaki, Katerina; Bottein, Marie-Yasmine Dechraoui; Fraga, Santiago; Morton, Steve L.; Penna, Antonella; Rhodes, Lesley (2012). "Gambierdiscus and Ostreopsis: Reassessment of the state of knowledge of their taxonomy, geography, ecophysiology, and toxicology". Harmful Algae. 14: 107–129. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.017. hdl: 11576/2512002 .
  6. ↑ Parsons, Michael L.; Settlemier, Chelsie J.; Bienfang, Paul K. (2010-11-01). "A simple model capable of simulating the population dynamics of Gambierdiscus, the benthic dinoflagellate responsible for ciguatera fish poisoning". Harmful Algae. 10 (1): 71–80. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2010.07.002.
  7. 1 2 3 Chinain, Mireille; Faust, Maria A.; Pauillac, Serge (1999). "Morphology and molecular analyses of three toxic species of Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae): G. pacificus, sp. nov., G. australes, sp. nov., and G. polynesiensis, sp. nov". Journal of Phycology. 35 (6): 1282–1296. Bibcode:1999JPcgy..35.1282C. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3561282.x. ISSN   0022-3646. S2CID   84382012.
  8. ↑ Kretzschmar, Anna Liza; Verma, Arjun; Harwood, Tim; Hoppenrath, Mona; Murray, Shauna; DeClerck, O. (2017). "Characterization of Gambierdiscus lapillus sp. nov. (Gonyaulacales, Dinophyceae): a new toxic dinoflagellate from the Great Barrier Reef (Australia)". Journal of Phycology. 53 (2): 283–297. Bibcode:2017JPcgy..53..283K. doi: 10.1111/jpy.12496 . ISSN   0022-3646. PMID   27885668.
  9. 1 2 Fraga, Santiago; Rodríguez, Francisco (2014). "Genus Gambierdiscus in the Canary Islands (NE Atlantic Ocean) with Description of Gambierdiscus silvae sp. nov., a New Potentially Toxic Epiphytic Benthic Dinoflagellate". Protist. 165 (6): 839–853. doi: 10.1016/j.protis.2014.09.003 . hdl: 10261/323998 . ISSN   1434-4610. PMID   25460234.

Wikispecies-logo.svg Data related to Gambierdiscus at Wikispecies

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.