Gender inequality in New Zealand

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Gender equality is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, and the state of valuing different behaviours, aspirations, and needs equally, also regardless of gender. [1] Gender equality is a human right, which is recognised under the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [2]

Contents

Gender equality is increasingly framed as being central to the realisation of both modernisation and economic efficiency, and its achievement presented as a key to good governance. [3] In 2025, New Zealand was ranked 5th out of a total of 148 countries in the Global Gender Gap Report which ranks countries in terms of gender equality in the population under four dimensions: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. [4]

Overview

According to the New Zealand Government's Progress Report on Gender Equality, published May 2024, the biggest challenges for achieving gender equality on a national level are increased rates in women’s underutilisation, underemployment, and unemployment, the gender pay gap, high levels of family and sexual violence, and addressing gender inequity in health. [5]

In the World Economic Forum’s 2025 annual report on the Global Gender Gap, New Zealand ranks at 5th place – the only country in the region of Eastern Asia & The Pacific to rank in the Top 10. [4] [6] The report analyses the gender gap through four dimensions: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment. [7] The overall gender parity score for New Zealand in 2025 sits at 82.7%, slightly below the peak of 85.6% achieved in 2023. The decline is partially due to the drop in political empowerment, with Parity in ministerial positions dropping from 81.8 percent in 2023 to 53.8 percent in 2025 and Parliamentary representation dropping after the achievement of full parity in 2023. [7] The Economic Participation and Opportunity subindex is following a downward trend, dropping to 70% parity for the first time since 2007. [8]

History

Pre-colonisation and early European settlement

In precolonial Māori society, women had a say in the affairs of their iwi or hapū and could inherit land. They had varied responsibilities as tribal leaders, military strategists, warriors, poets, composers and healers. Their roles were irrespective of their gender. [9] Kinship systems in Māori tribes were often arranged matrilineally. [10]

During the 19th century, European settlers assumed that Māori women were not powerful in society. Due to this assumption, they only negotiated with Māori men, and caused inequality between men and women to arise. The settlers brought with them patriarchal ideas, including the expectation that women are wives, mothers and homemakers, while men are supposed to support their wives and children financially. [11]

Women's suffrage

The first period of intense activism to challenge gender inequality was from the 1880s-1890s. Kate Sheppard, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, and women’s franchise leagues, fought for the right for women to be able to vote. This was interlinked with a campaign for moral reform, including the banning of alcohol. Suffragettes submitted bills to parliament 3 years in a row – with the Legislative Council (the Upper House) blocking two bills in 1891 and 1892. In 1893, New Zealand became the first country in the world to give women (Pākehā and Māori) the right to vote in national elections. [12] Other gender equality campaigns at the time focused on women’s rights within marriage, and against the double standard that prevailed in relation to sexual behaviour. [13]

Gender inequality in parliament

Women were not able to stand for parliament until 1919. The first woman to win an election was Elizabeth McCombs in 1933. Iriaka Rātana was the first Māori woman MP, elected in 1949. [12] Dame Jenny Shipley was the first woman to be Prime Minister in New Zealand from 1997 to 1999. [14] Gender equal representation was reached from October 2022 to October 2023, when there were 61 female MPs and 60 male MPs. [15]

Second-wave feminism

The second period of intense activism challenging gender inequality focused on broad cultural issues, political representation, employment issues, and sexuality and reproductive rights. This led to legal and social changes in New Zealand. The first significant event was the establishment of the Society for Research on Women in 1966. [16] Another significant achievement was the establishment of the Equal Pay Act 1972. [17] The Manatū Wāhine Ministry for Women (under the name Ministry of Women's Affairs) was established in 1984. [18] The Human Rights Commission Act 1977 prohibited discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, pregnancy, marital status (including living in a de facto relationship) or family status. [13]

The country ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) on 10 January 1985, and its optional protocol on 7 September 2000. The Ministry for Women is responsible for administrating the CEDAW and its Optional Protocol. The committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women makes recommendations on any issues affecting women that the state should address. As of April 2015, the committee has made 29 general recommendations on issues affecting women that states should devote more attention to. [19]

Gender inequality in the New Zealand Defence Force

Conscription of men into combat roles was enacted during the New Zealand Wars, the First World War, and the Second World War. [20] Women were barred from serving in combat roles during these periods and therefore were not conscripted into battle. [21] In the Second World War, women were conscripted into essential jobs in New Zealand to fill the gap of the male workers who were fighting. [22] The New Zealand Defence Force became fully integrated in 1977, allowing women to join the Army, Navy, and Air Force alongside men. However, women were unable to serve in combat zones until 2000. [21]

Prohibition of homosexuality

Historical inequalities for men include the prohibition of homosexuality for men until the homosexual law reform bill in 1986. From 1893 to 1986, male homosexual acts had faced severe legal penalties in New Zealand, evolving from capital punishment to life imprisonment and hard labour. [23] Lesbianism was never criminalised, however lesbians sometimes lost their jobs, or were sent to psychiatric hospitals. [24]

Legislation for gender equity

The legal framework in New Zealand provides comprehensive protection against all forms of discrimination covered by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).[ citation needed ]

In 1973 The Domestic Purpose Benefit (now the sole parent or jobseeker support) was introduced for all parents caring for dependent children without the support of a partner. [25] The Accident Compensation Amendment Act 2010 also extended compensation to non-earners, benefiting women who do full-time unpaid work in the domestic home. [26] [ citation needed ]

New Zealand has also enacted a number of legislative means to provide for equal pay for the genders. Outlawing sexual discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace with the Equal Pay Act 1972, [27] the State Sector Act 1988 [28] and the Human Rights Act 1993. [29] [30] Section 21 of the Human Rights Act 1993 prohibits discrimination in the workplace on the grounds of sex (including pregnancy and child birth), marital status and family status. [29] The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 [31] protects all New Zealand citizens from discrimination on the basis of sex.

Preventing gender inequality in proposed legislation

New Zealand has a mechanism to prevent gender inequality in the proposed legislation. Section 7 of the Bill of Right Act requires the Attorney General to report to Parliament if a bill appears to be inconsistent with the non-discrimination requirements of the act. However, parliament is not bound by these reports.[ citation needed ]

Papers presented to cabinet are required to undergo a gender analysis by the Ministry for Women to determine the potential impacts on women and girls. [32]

Gender neutrality & New Zealand law

Proponents of gender neutrality in law, including the New Zealand Law Commission, Law professor Kevin Dawkins from Otago University, and the Human Rights Review Tribunal have recommended several changes to current gendered legislation. [33] [34] [35]

The New Zealand Law Commission reviewed the Crimes Act in 2009 and recommended a repeal of the “male assaults female” offence, which has primarily been used to address domestic violence, and increase the maximum penalty for "common assault" to match that of "male assaults female" (3 years). [36] [33] In 2018, the gender neutral charge of "assault on a family member" was introduced, with the same maximum penalty as "male assaults female", therefore becoming inclusive of all relationship gender dynamics. [36] [37]

Infanticide

In the case of a woman killing her child, she can be charged with the crime of infanticide instead of murder if "the balance of her mind was disturbed". Infanticide has smaller consequences than murder, and men cannot be charged with infanticide. In New Zealand, there has been at least one case of a man being charged with murder where a woman would have been charged with infanticide. [38]

Law professor Kevin Dawkins from Otago University wants infanticide to be replaced by new legislation that applies to both female and male offenders. [34]

Some people have argued that this law contributes to a misconception that childbirth or breastfeeding can contribute to insanity, and have called for the law to be replaced with one that recognises that people with certain mental illnesses are capable in controlling their actions. [39] [40]

Adoption

The Adoption Act 1955 prevents sole males from adopting female children unless the male is the father, or under "special circumstances". [41] In 2016, the Human Rights Review Tribunal ruled that the provision was inconsistent with the Bill of Rights. [35]

Violence

Intimate partner violence and sexual violence is a significant contributor to gender inequality in New Zealand according to the New Zealand Government. [5] The 2021/2022 New Zealand Crime & Victims Survey (NZCVS) reported that overall, both women and men experience a similar level of victimisation when it comes to personal offenses,16.7% of men and 17.2% of women. Violence against women is classed as gender-based violence as it is rooted in gender inequalities between men and women, and is disproportionately high compared to the number of women who perpetrate violent crime. [42] [43] [44] New Zealand Police record statistics on crime victims and crime offenders. In 2024, 54.19% of victims who reported experiencing violent crimes were women while 41.59% were men. [45] In the same categories, only 20.40% of offenders were women and 79.57% were men. [46] According to NZCVS, approximately 24% of victims of personal offenses in 2024 reported to the police, no significant gender difference was noted in the report. [47]

Victims & offenders of interpersonal violent crimes in 2024 by gender
Female VictimsFemale OffendersMale VictimsMale OffendersN/A* VictimsN/A* Offenders
Assault52.7%23.0%43.4%77.0%3.9%-
Sexual offenses80.7%3.7%13.8%96.2%5.5%0.1%
Harm or endanger persons66.1%20.8%23.8%79.1%10.0%0.1%
Robbery, blackmail, and extortion26.6%13.5%66.3%86.5%7.1%-
Total54.19%20.40%41.59%79.57%4.22%0.02%
Victimisations source: New Zealand Police

Proceedings (offender demographics) source: New Zealand Police Select time period: Jan 2024 to Dec 2024.Outcome of Investigation set at 30 days (Victimisations).Proceeding refers to the first legal action taken against the offender. [48] Victimisations occurring in dwellings are excluded from the data. Note: Murder is not included in victimisations.*N/A refers to instances where the victim's gender was not recorded.

Women are more likely than men to experience intimate partner violence, 24% of women experience one of more IPV offences during their lifetimes compared to 10% of men. 36% of women have experienced sexual assault compared to 13% of men. [49]

Victimisation by relationship to offender. Percentage of people victimised once or more, 2013
Violent interpersonal offences by
FamilyIntimate partners (for people who have had partners)Family excl intimate partnersNot familyPeople known excl familyStrangers
%%%%%%
Female6.95.7 a 3.16.54.82.7 a
Male5.84.42.86.84.24.0 a
^a This result is a statistically significant difference between men and women at the 90% confidence level.

Source: NZCASS

Domestic violence

The Domestic Violence Act 1995 addresses domestic and family violence and pursuant to the act domestic violence can be charged as a criminal offence. [50] [ non-primary source needed ]

In New Zealand the government has implemented specialist family violence courts and means-tested legal aid services which provide referral and advocacy as well as applicant support and outreach for victims of domestic violence. The New Zealand government has made steady progress in implementing fundamental criminal justice reforms that strengthen victim's rights and aims to provide greater protection for those at threat of family violence – most of whom are female victims of male violence. [51]

The social attitudes in New Zealand currently remain an impediment to combatting domestic violence and as such, is one of the major barriers in achieving gender equity in New Zealand. In essence the relatively strong legal framework is not always effectively implemented and domestic violence continues to be a challenge for New Zealand society. It is estimated that only 18% of family violence cases are reported to the police.[ citation needed ]

However the attitudes towards family violence in New Zealand are in the midst of change as a result of a sustained national campaign – The Campaign for Action on Violence within Families, which aims at changing social attitudes towards family violence. The government has also implemented similar programmes designed specifically for Māori, Pacific and migrant women which are endorsed by their communities. [51]

Rates of partner and sexual violence against women had a statistically significant reduction from 2005 to 2013. "The annual rate of partner violence offences against women decreased from 8.6 percent in 2005 to 5.7 percent in 2013. The annual rate of sexual violence offences against women decreased from 5.2 percent in 2005 to 2.9 percent in 2013." [52]

The Ministry of Health currently discourages care providers from routinely enquiring with patients about intimate partner violence where males are victims, stating, "Routine enquiry is not recommended because of the differences in prevalence and severity of violence against men. However, if signs and symptoms of IPV are present, males should also be questioned about the occurrence of IPV, or other experiences of violence." [53]

The latest New Zealand Crime and Safety Survey found that 4.4% of males and 5.7% of females reported one or more incidents of partner violence in the 12 months preceding the survey. [54]

A few studies on domestic violence in New Zealand, such as by the Women's Refuge or Police do not gather information about men. [55] [56]

Developments and present status

In the past century, the gender gap in New Zealand has been slowly closing in and there has been an increase in women's rights and feminism.[ further explanation needed ] The government is making steady progress and it is evident that the fundamentals for equal rights are all in place: democracy, the rule of law and an independent judiciary. The government has also implemented effective structures of governance, specialised human rights and other accountability mechanisms, and has recognised the vulnerability of particular groups and individuals.[ citation needed ]

Although New Zealand consistently ranks in the top half dozen of countries in the world when it comes to equality between men and women, it is not complacent in terms of gender equality. New Zealand women still do not experience the full equality guaranteed by the law. Across the economy, women's skills are under-used in leadership and women continue to earn less than men – even if they have the same qualifications, and similar job descriptions. Family violence also continues to be a cause of considerable disquiet.[ citation needed ]

However, many of the remaining gender gaps in New Zealand do not appear to be a conscious disregard to the law (as there is comprehensive legislation in place), rather it is largely based on subconscious prejudice and factors like occupational segregation. [51]

Employment and the workplace

The government's current goals and priorities in terms of employment equality for New Zealand women are linked to its broader goal of improving New Zealand's prosperity in the economy. This is to allow women to have more choices and opportunities to use their strengths to maximise social and economical success.

Gender equality is a topic in the workforce that has received increasing discussion and momentum. New Zealand started as the first nation to have full voting rights for women in 1893.[ citation needed ] From there, women entered the workforce in the 1960s, although the participation rate of men and women at the time was 81 percent and 67 percent respectively. [57] The goals of the New Zealand policy is to achieve women's representation in these organisations. Along with this, large corporations are encouraged to meet with the Ministry for Women. [58] New Zealand has utilised ways to further improve gender equality, by creating gender analysis tools so that various aspects can be further developed.[ citation needed ]

Feminists in New Zealand have developed their goal of creating greater equality for women.[ who? ] Equal economic agenda is a pillar of the liberal feminist ideas stemming from the 1980s. [59] The aim of these organisations[ who? ] is to create greater economic independence for women. The goal of these programs[ clarification needed ] is to increase representation for women and help them gain further recognition in the economic sector. [60]

The development of different policies towards greater equality in the workforce is championed by the various women's organisations in New Zealand. The Women's Affairs is recognised on a national level in the country. [61]

The Ministry also created interactive relationships with different female organisations. The workforce has benefited from the government interaction with women's organisations and helped to understand the change in the various female demographics in the economic sector. [62] The commitment of the government to provide an equal working field is an important aspect of equality for women in New Zealand.[ citation needed ] There is a National Action Plan to implement UNSC Resolution 1325, which is dedicated to Peace and Security for women. [63] [ relevant? ]

Men make up 71% of work-related injuries in New Zealand, meaning that men are two times more likely than women to be injured. 96% of workplace deaths are men. [64]

Political and public representation

New Zealand has had a high level of participation by women in public life and this is evident from the modest female representation in politics and the judiciary.[ citation needed ]As of 2020, 48% of parliament members are women. [65]

At present there are no adopted quotas and targets to increase the number of women to ensure the equal representation of women in all publicly appointed bodies by the New Zealand Government. Rather, the government has developed a policy of ‘soft targets’ to promote equal representation. This was criticised by the Human Rights Commission as being insufficient as there is no dedicated machinery to guide it. [66]

Employment rates

In terms of New Zealand labour force participation, the female unemployment rate is statistically higher than that of men (with the unemployment rate being the highest for Māori and Pacific women). Women generally have higher rates of participation in all categories of unpaid work – within and outside of the household. The amount of part-time workers in New Zealand are three quarters women. [67] Various demographics of women take on more part-time work than men. [67] [ why? ]

The report from the New Zealand census of Women's participation in Government and Professional Life shows 60 percent of women have no position in the top 100 corporations. [68] According to advocacy group Global Women, in 2019, 18 percent of companies listed on NZX did not have female representation in their board. [69] As of September 2020, 22.5 percent of directors on NZX listed companies are women, with the top 50 listed companies having higher proportions of female directors (31.6%) than all other listed companies (15.9%). [70]

Pay

With regard to pay equity, the domestic gender pay gap in New Zealand when comparing full-time workers is rather low in comparison to other countries. The gender pay gap in New Zealand was calculated to be 9.9% in 2014, which was the lowest in the Asia Pacific Region. [71] [ dead link ]

Unpaid work

As of 2022, New Zealand women average 264 minutes of unpaid work each day, while men average 141 minutes. Unpaid work includes housework, shopping, child and adult care, volunteering, travel related to household activities and other unpaid work. [72] Approximately 63 percent of women's work in New Zealand is unpaid, compared to 35 percent of men's work. [73] [ further explanation needed ]

Education

The gender gap in primary & secondary education

In years 1–8 fewer boys than girls met national standards in 2015. For reading, 73.9% of boys and 82.4% of girls met national standards, 8.5 percentage points of difference. [74] [ dead link ] For writing, 63.9% of boys and 79.4% of girls met national standards, 15.5 percentage points of difference. [75] [ dead link ] For maths, 74.8 percent of boys and 76.2% of girls met national standards, 1.4 percentage points of difference. [76] [ dead link ]

Overall NCEA attainment rates in 2024 show that female leavers outperform male leavers in all 3 levels, with the gender gap being highest in NCEA Level 3 (59.5% of female leavers and 51.6% of male leavers attained the qualification). [77] [78] [79]

The gender gap between female and male students is most prevalent in reading and writing. In mathematics and science, there is no significant gap between the genders. [80] The limited research done on the modern gender gap in New Zealand's school system suggests that while boys are not under-achieving overall, they face unique challenges with engaging in education. [81] Males are more prone to disruptive and inattentive classroom behaviours, leading to a male educational disadvantage. [82] Gender stereotypes detonate reading as a 'feminine' behaviour, leading to pressure on boys to avoid the activity. [80]

Tertiary education

As of 2023, the share of population between ages 25 to 34 years who attained tertiary education is 51.8% of women and 40% of men. In STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) women make up 43% of graduates, one of the highest levels in the OECD. [83]

Not in education, employment, or training

Women outnumber men for 20 to 24-year-olds who are not in employment, education or training (NEET), 18.4% of women and 12.4% of men in 2024. The gap can be attributed to the proportion of women who are engaging in caregiving activities full time. From 2004 to 2024, the gender gap has significantly declined, corresponding with the declining number of women engaged in caregiving activities. NEET women engaging in caregiving activities went from 16,300 in the March 2004 quarter to 9,900 in the March 2024 quarter. [84]

Family assets and resources

The Administration Act 1976 (section 77) provides for equal inheritance rights for sons and daughters and there is no evidence of discrimination in practice, or under any informal customary systems. [85] [ citation needed ]

New Zealand women have the right to non-discrimination in the ownership and access to land. The Maori Land Act 1993 provides for gender equality in the control and use of land and resources. [86] In terms of non-land assets, there are no restrictions on their equal rights to property, regardless of marital status.[ citation needed ]

Women also have the equal right to financial services pursuant to the Human Rights 1993. [29]

Health

On average, women have better health outcomes than men and women generally have a higher life expectancy.[ citation needed ]

Men and women have equal access to health services. [51]

There are no screening programmes for prostate cancer in New Zealand, but there is for breast cancer. Genomic testing for prostate cancer is not funded whereas it is for those with breast cancer. In terms of research funding, breast cancer receives $12 million per year whereas prostate cancer receives $3 million per year. [87]

Suicide

For the 2016/17 year there were 457 male suicides and 149 female suicides. The suicide rate per 100,000 population was 19.36 for males and 6.12. Traditionally the ratio is about 3:1 male to female. [88]

Life expectancy

The New Zealand life expectancy at birth for babies born between 2012 and 2014 was 79.5 years for males and 83.2 years for females, which is a difference of 3.7 years.

A male New Zealander born in 2013 can expect to live for an average of 65.2 years independently, and another 14.3 years with some level of disability requiring support.

Females can expect to live for an average of 66.5 years independently and another 16.7 years with functional limitations that require support.

At birth, therefore, females can expect to live independently for 1.3 years longer than males. They can also expect to live 2.4 years longer with disability requiring assistance than males. [89]

Homelessness

In Auckland, the majority of the homeless population is male, [90] [91] with 80% being male, 16% female and 4% being unidentified. [92] [ why? ][ further explanation needed ]

According to a survey of trans and non-binary New Zealanders, 25% of these people surveyed have either been homeless or have used an emergency shelter. [93] [ further explanation needed ]

Gender attitudes

Attitudes towards gender inequality and related topics are measured biannually by the National Council of Women of New Zealand and Research New Zealand. The majority of New Zealander's surveyed from 2017-2025 agreed that "gender equality in Aotearoa New Zealand is a fundamental right". The group least likely to agree with the statement were young men (18-34 years), with only 67% agreeing, over 10% less than any other age group regardless of gender. Young men were also the most likely to agree that "gender equality has already been achieved", and that "gender equality has gone too far". [94]

Agreement with select statements in %, by age within gender, 2025
Females

18-24

Males

18-24

Females

35-64

Males

35-64

Females

65+

Males

65+

Gender equality is a fundamental right in Aotearoa New Zealand78%67%83%78%83%85%
Sexism is still a significant issue in Aotearoa New Zealand64%55%67%49%59%65%
Gender equality has already been achieved for the most part in Aotearoa New Zealand41%56%38%50%48%51%
Gender equality has gone too far in Aotearoa New Zealand15%33%16%30%18%14%
Source: National Council of Women

Gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are generalised beliefs about attributes or characteristics that women and men do or should hold. Gender stereotypes can limit women and men's capacity when it comes to personal abilities, career development, and general life choices. [95] The majority of New Zealanders surveyed held gender equitable attitudes when questioned about gender stereotypes. However, men were more likely than women to agree with gender stereotypes that negatively impact both women and men. 17% of men surveyed believed "it is more important for women to be physically attractive than men" compared to 9% of women surveyed. More male than female respondents believed that outdoor household chores, such as mowing the lawn, driving to family outings, and putting the rubbish out is "more appropriate for boys and men". Only 55% of respondents believed being a builder was suitable for all genders, 47% of male respondents and 38% of female believed it was more suitable for men. When it came to school subjects, more male than female respondents believed that fashion and textiles technology is more suited to women while materials technology is more suited to men. 66% of women surveyed believed that it is ok for boys to play with dolls whereas only 46% of men agreed. [94]

See also

References

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