George Billman

Last updated
George Edward Billman
Born (1954-07-23) 23 July 1954 (age 69)
Fort Worth, Texas
CitizenshipAmerican
Alma mater Xavier University
University of Kentucky
Known forStudying the effects of exercise training and omega-3 fatty acids on the cardiovascular system
SpouseRosemary (1975–)
Children2
AwardsFellow – American Heart Association (2001)
Fellow – Heart Rhythm Society (2011)
Scientific career
FieldsPhysiology
Institutions University of Oklahoma
Ohio State University
Thesis The Neural Control of the Coronary Circulation during Behavioral Stress in Conscious Dogs (1980 [1] )
Doctoral advisor David C. Randall

George Edward Billman (born July 23, 1954) is an American physiologist and professor at Ohio State University. After receiving a Ph.D from the University of Kentucky in 1980, Billman began his professional career at the University of Oklahoma. In 1984, he joined the Ohio State staff, where he became an associate professor in 1990 and a full professor in 1996.

Contents

Billman's research has focused on cardiovascular function, in particular its role in the induction of ventricular fibrillation (VF). He developed non-invasive methods to study autonomic neural regulation of the heart, using a canine model of sudden cardiac death (SCD). These techniques have subsequently been used in human patients to identify people at high risk for VF. Billman has used his sudden cardiac death models to study the effects of exercise training on susceptibility to SCD and the effects of omega-3 fatty acids, among other things. Due to his use of live animals in experiments, Billman has been criticized by animal rights activists; however, a 2009 regulatory investigation found no evidence of wrongdoing.

Early life and education

George Edward Billman was born on July 23, 1954, in Fort Worth, Texas. [2] He attended Xavier University, graduating cum laude in 1975 with a bachelor's degree in natural science. He did his doctoral work at the University of Kentucky, earning a Ph.D. in physiology and biophysics in 1980. [1] From 1980–1982, Billman was a research associate under H. Lowell Stone at the University of Oklahoma. [1] [2]

Career

In 1982, Billman was promoted to Assistant Professor of Research at Oklahoma. In 1984, he accepted an assistant professor position at Ohio State University. He was promoted to associate professor in 1990 and made a full professor in 1996. Billman was elected a Fellow of the American Heart Association in 2001. [2] In 2011, he was elected a Fellow of the Heart Rhythm Society. [1] [3] He is also a member of The Physiological Society in London, the American Physiological Society, the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL), and Sigma Xi. [1]

Billman has served on the editorial boards of the American Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology (2004–2007), Current Cardiology Reviews (2004–), Experimental Physiology (2006−2010), the Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics (2001–), and the Journal of Applied Physiology (2007–). He was an associate editor of Pharmacology & Therapeutics from 1999–2014. [2] In June 2014, he was selected as the editor-in-chief of the recently formed Frontiers in Physiology , a position he continues to hold as of 2014. [1] [4]

Billman consulted for Eli Lilly from 1987–1988, Glaxo from 1989–1991, Procter & Gamble from 1995–99. He has been a consultant for Sanofi Aventis since 1999. [2]

Research

Billman's research has focused on cardiovascular physiology with an emphasis on ventricular fibrillation (VF) and the cardiovascular system's response to stress. [5] His work has led to non-invasive (electrocardiograph) techniques to detect susceptibility to sudden cardiac death (SCD) in dogs. These electrocardiographic markers have subsequently been used clinically on humans. [6] Billman has studied the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on the heart and circulatory system. [2] [7] He has also studied the effects of exercise training and novel pharmaceutics on the test subject's susceptibility to fatal cardiac arrhythmias. He has performed experiments on live research dogs and using isolated ventricular myocytes. [1]

Model of sudden cardiac death

Billman developed a technique of inducing fatal ventricular fibrillation in dogs in the lab of H. Lowell Stone starting in 1980, and used and refined it over the next 25 years. [8] [9] The model subsequently has been described as "an elegant in vivo model of sudden cardiac death" by cardiologist Michel de Lorgeril et al. [10] : 228  and "a highly reliable canine model of sudden cardiac death" by physiologist Alexander Leaf et al. [11] : 130  The model is described in Springer's handbook of reliable procedures for testing the potential effects of new drug candidates in the antiarrhythmic section. [8]

In the procedure, the left main anterior coronary artery is surgically blocked and a hydraulic cuff is placed around the left circumflex coronary artery, allowing the artery to be blocked on demand. Experiments proceed after a month of recovery and treadmill training. [11] : 130  Under stress from exercise combined with the blocking of the arteries, 50–60% of dogs enter fatal ventricular fibrillation within 2 minutes. [6] [12] These dogs are labeled susceptible, while the other 40–50% are labeled resistant. [13] Dogs that enter VF are defibrillated, allowing for repeated study of the same animals. Over time, initial results (fibrillation or no fibrillation) have proven to be 92% reproducible, allowing for precise testing of potential antiarrhythmic agents. [6]

This model of sudden cardiac death has "yielded important insights" into ischaemic heart disease. [13] The initial study using the technique, published in 1982, found that decreased baroreflex sensitivity was associated with increased risk for ventricular fibrillation. This marked the first time an autonomic response was seen as having prognostic value. The same association was demonstrated in humans by Kleiger et al. in 1987 and "definitively" demonstrated in dogs in 1988 by Schwartz, Billman, et al. [6] On the basis of these findings, a large clinical study (Autonomic Tone and Reflexes After MI), was conducted. The 1,284 patient study "fully confirmed" baroreflex sensitivity as a valid predictor of sudden and non-sudden death after myocardial infarction (MI). [6]

Billman's model of SCD has also shown that sudden death is not a direct function of the degree of a myocardial infarction and that baroreflex gain declines during MI. Resistant dogs show a reduced heart rate during ischemia, while susceptible dogs show increased heart rate (beyond that induced by the exercise). Reviewing the findings, physiologist Dwain L. Eckberg wrote that the model "seems to be extremely relevant" to human patients at risk for sudden cardiac death. [13]

Cocaine and heart function

According to a 1990 review article by Billman, cocaine has two primary circulatory effects – increased sympathetic stimulation and cardiac ion channel inhibition – that lead to a variety of heart problems. The drug also causes increased heart rate and blood pressure. In a 1995 review article, he said resulting secondary effects include arrhythmia, coronary vasospasm, myocardial infarction, and ventricular fibrillation. [14]

Omega-3 fatty acids

Diagram showing the interaction between omega-3 fatty acids and the cardiac cell membrane (top) with the possible effect on ventricular arrhythmia (bottom). Interaction of omega-3s with cardiac cell membrane.png
Diagram showing the interaction between omega-3 fatty acids and the cardiac cell membrane (top) with the possible effect on ventricular arrhythmia (bottom).

In 1994, Billman used his model of SCD to test the ability of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to prevent fatal arrhythmias. In the test, eight dogs otherwise susceptible to ventricular fibrillation were given a direct infusion of fish oil. Seven of the eight did not have VF during the test. Five of five animals re-tested in a follow-up control test (i.e. without treatment) had VF. The observed effect most likely resulted from a combination of direct chemical interaction on the cardiac cell membrane and a reduced heart rate caused by the omega-3s. [15] [16] The study was picked up by a nationally syndicated columnist, and thus reported in various popular media outlets. [16] Follow-up studies in 1997 and 1999 confirmed the results (P<0.005) and found both eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (found in fish oil), as well as α-Linolenic acid (found in vegetable oil) to have antiarrhythmic effects. [17] [18] [19]

The same effect has been shown to occur in humans by other researchers. Billman's more recent work has focused on discovering the biochemical mechanisms of the antiarrhythmic effects omega-3 fatty acids, and on whether the same protection can be gained through dietary omega-3 fatty acids. [20] A 2003 review of the research suggested the effect was due to electrophysiological properties of free omega-3s in sarcolemma. Dietary fatty acids are incorporated into membrane phospholipids and are then released during ischemia, suggesting a possible mechanism whereby the cardiac muscle is more resistant to entering arrhythmia under stress. [10] However, large-scale clinical trials of dietary omega-3s have been inconclusive, with some studies finding significant reduction in sudden cardiac death and others finding no effect. Meta-analysis performed in 2014, found statistically significant reduction in sudden cardiac death (odds ratio (OR) 0.86; confidence interval (CI) 0.76 to 0.98), while 2013 meta-analysis using a different data set found a non-statistically significant reduction (OR 0.82; CI 0.60 to 1.21). [21] [22]

Response to research

Billman's experiments have been protested by animal rights activists. [23] [24] In 2007, a local group known as Protect Our Earth's Treasures, spurred by Ohio State approving the use of up to 120 additional dogs, protested Billman's research. Specifically, they were against the surgical blocking of arteries in Billman's model of sudden cardiac death and the subsequent euthanizing of surviving animals for future study. [23] In April 2009, PETA, which had long questioned Billman's techniques, filed formal complaints with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the NIH's Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare. They alleged he was conducting redundant experiments and using unnecessarily cruel techniques. [24] Ohio State said PETA's claims "grossly misrepresented and severely discounted the scientific merit and potential public health benefit of this work." [20] Two federal investigations found no evidence of wrongdoing, [25] but PETA continued to campaign against the experiments. [25] [26] In 2010, Ohio State issued an open letter in response to continued protest letters. In the statement, OSU said PETA was misleading the public by saying Billman's research was investigating the "obvious" fact that "exercise strengthens the heart" when the research was actually attempting to understand the biochemical and cellular mechanisms which lead to sudden cardiac death. [26]

Billman received a new investigator award from National Institutes of Health (NIH) from 1983−1986. [2] He was the principal investigator on NIH R01 grants starting in 1986, 1995, 2002, and 2007, and on a National Institute on Drug Abuse R01 grant starting in 1990. [2] [5] He has also led studies paid for by Hoffmann-La Roche, Merck, and Sanofi-Aventis. [2]

Personal life

George Billman and his wife, Rosemary, have been married since 1975. The couple have two children – George T. and Elyse T. [2] Billman. He is an avid amateur genealogist, [27] and has determined that his own ancestor, Hans Theobald Billmann, who emigrated to the United States in 1752, was not in turn descended from ancestors previously identified by other amateur researchers. [28]

Publications

In 2011, Billman published a review article on heart rate variability, illustrated here by an electrocardiogram recording of canine heart beat. Heart rate variability ECG.jpg
In 2011, Billman published a review article on heart rate variability, illustrated here by an electrocardiogram recording of canine heart beat.

Billman has authored or co-authored more than 150 scientific papers, which have been cited more than 5000 times in peer-reviewed research. According to Web of Science, he has an h-index of 38, with 11 papers receiving more than 100 citations. [29] Billman was the editor of the 2010 book Novel Therapeutic Targets for Antiarrhythmic Drugs published by John Wiley and Sons, and contributed three chapters to it. According to the publisher, the book describes the state of cardiac arrhythmia treatment, and future directions the research may take. [30] In a review of the book, Peter R. Kowey praised Billman for "[encouraging] blue sky thinking" in his contributions. [31]

Books

Selected journal articles

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiology</span> Branch of medicine dealing with the heart

Cardiology is the study of the heart. Cardiology is a branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the heart and the cardiovascular system. The field includes medical diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease, and electrophysiology. Physicians who specialize in this field of medicine are called cardiologists, a specialty of internal medicine. Pediatric cardiologists are pediatricians who specialize in cardiology. Physicians who specialize in cardiac surgery are called cardiothoracic surgeons or cardiac surgeons, a specialty of general surgery.

Omega−3 fatty acids, also called Omega−3 oils, ω−3 fatty acids or n−3 fatty acids, are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) characterized by the presence of a double bond, three atoms away from the terminal methyl group in their chemical structure. They are widely distributed in nature, being important constituents of animal lipid metabolism, and they play an important role in the human diet and in human physiology. The three types of omega−3 fatty acids involved in human physiology are α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA can be found in plants, while DHA and EPA are found in algae and fish. Marine algae and phytoplankton are primary sources of omega−3 fatty acids. DHA and EPA accumulate in fish that eat these algae. Common sources of plant oils containing ALA include walnuts, edible seeds, and flaxseeds as well as hempseed oil, while sources of EPA and DHA include fish and fish oils, and algae oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac arrest</span> Sudden stop in effective blood flow due to the failure of the heart to beat

Cardiac arrest, also known as sudden cardiac arrest, is when the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stops beating. As a result blood will not be pumped around the body in normal circulation, consciousness will be rapidly lost, and breathing will be abnormal or absent. Without immediate intervention such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and possibly defibrillation, death will occur within minutes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardioversion</span> Conversion of a cardiac arrhythmia to a normal rhythm using an electrical shock or medications

Cardioversion is a medical procedure by which an abnormally fast heart rate (tachycardia) or other cardiac arrhythmia is converted to a normal rhythm using electricity or drugs. Synchronized electrical cardioversion uses a therapeutic dose of electric current to the heart at a specific moment in the cardiac cycle, restoring the activity of the electrical conduction system of the heart. Pharmacologic cardioversion, also called chemical cardioversion, uses antiarrhythmia medication instead of an electrical shock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ventricular fibrillation</span> Rapid quivering of the ventricles of the heart

Ventricular fibrillation is an abnormal heart rhythm in which the ventricles of the heart quiver. It is due to disorganized electrical activity. Ventricular fibrillation results in cardiac arrest with loss of consciousness and no pulse. This is followed by sudden cardiac death in the absence of treatment. Ventricular fibrillation is initially found in about 10% of people with cardiac arrest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator</span> Medical device

An implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) or automated implantable cardioverter defibrillator (AICD) is a device implantable inside the body, able to perform defibrillation, and depending on the type, cardioversion and pacing of the heart. The ICD is the first-line treatment and prophylactic therapy for patients at risk for sudden cardiac death due to ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Short QT syndrome</span> Medical condition

Short QT syndrome (SQT) is a very rare genetic disease of the electrical system of the heart, and is associated with an increased risk of abnormal heart rhythms and sudden cardiac death. The syndrome gets its name from a characteristic feature seen on an electrocardiogram (ECG) – a shortening of the QT interval. It is caused by mutations in genes encoding ion channels that shorten the cardiac action potential, and appears to be inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. The condition is diagnosed using a 12-lead ECG. Short QT syndrome can be treated using an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator or medications including quinidine. Short QT syndrome was first described in 2000, and the first genetic mutation associated with the condition was identified in 2004.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oily fish</span> Fish species with oils in their tissues and coelom

Oily fish are fish species with oil (fats) in soft tissues and in the coelomic cavity around the gut. Their fillets may contain up to 30% oil, although this figure varies both within and between species. Examples of oily fish include small forage fish such as sardines, herring and anchovies, and other larger pelagic fish such as salmon, trout, tuna, swordfish and mackerel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Procainamide</span> Medication to treat cardiac arrhythmias

Procainamide (PCA) is a medication of the antiarrhythmic class used for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. It is a sodium channel blocker of cardiomyocytes; thus it is classified by the Vaughan Williams classification system as class Ia. In addition to blocking the INa current, it inhibits the IKr rectifier K+ current. Procainamide is also known to induce a voltage-dependent open channel block on the batrachotoxin (BTX)-activated sodium channels in cardiomyocytes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lorcainide</span> Antiarrythmic agent

Lorcainide is a Class 1c antiarrhythmic agent that is used to help restore normal heart rhythm and conduction in patients with premature ventricular contractions, ventricular tachycardiac and Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome. Lorcainide was developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica (Belgium) in 1968 under the commercial name Remivox and is designated by code numbers R-15889 or Ro 13-1042/001. It has a half-life of 8.9 +- 2.3 hrs which may be prolonged to 66 hrs in people with cardiac disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia</span> Medical condition

Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) is an inherited genetic disorder that predisposes those affected to potentially life-threatening abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias. The arrhythmias seen in CPVT typically occur during exercise or at times of emotional stress, and classically take the form of bidirectional ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation. Those affected may be asymptomatic, but they may also experience blackouts or even sudden cardiac death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dronedarone</span> Drug

Dronedarone, sold under the brand name Multaq, is a medication by Sanofi-Aventis, mainly for the indication of cardiac arrhythmias. It was approved by the FDA on July 2, 2009. It was recommended as an alternative to amiodarone for the treatment of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter in people whose hearts have either returned to normal rhythm or who undergo drug therapy or electric shock treatment i.e. direct current cardioversion (DCCV) to maintain normal rhythm. It is a class III antiarrhythmic drug. In the United States, the FDA approved label includes a claim for reducing hospitalization, but not for reducing mortality, as a reduction in mortality was not demonstrated in the clinical development program. A trial of the drug in heart failure was stopped as an interim analysis showed a possible increase in heart failure deaths, in patients with moderate to severe CHF.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pilsicainide</span> Chemical compound

Pilsicainide (INN) is an antiarrhythmic agent. It is marketed in Japan as サンリズム (Sunrythm). It was developed by Suntory Holdings Limited and first released in 1991. The JAN applies to the hydrochloride salt, pilsicainide hydrochloride.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Michel Haïssaguerre</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arrhythmia</span> Group of medical conditions characterized by irregular heartbeat

Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, heart arrhythmias, or dysrhythmias, are irregularities in the heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. A resting heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beats per minute in adults – is called tachycardia, and a resting heart rate that is too slow – below 60 beats per minute – is called bradycardia. Some types of arrhythmias have no symptoms. Symptoms, when present, may include palpitations or feeling a pause between heartbeats. In more serious cases, there may be lightheadedness, passing out, shortness of breath, chest pain, or decreased level of consciousness. While most cases of arrhythmia are not serious, some predispose a person to complications such as stroke or heart failure. Others may result in sudden death.

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References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "George E Billman biography". Frontiers Media. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Katherine H. Nemeh, ed. (2008). "Billman, George Edward". American Men & Women of Science. Vol. 1.
  3. ↑ "FHRS Member Listing". Heart Rhythm Society. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
  4. ↑ "OSUToday". Ohio State University. June 17, 2010. Retrieved December 29, 2014.
  5. 1 2 "George E. Billman, PhD". Ohio State. Retrieved November 24, 2014.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Peter J. Schwartz (2011). "Vagal Stimulation for Heart Diseases: From Animals to Men". Circulation Journal. 75 (1): 20–27. doi: 10.1253/circj.CJ-10-1019 . PMID   21127379.
  7. ↑ Carper, Jean (October 13, 1993). "Eating Fish Oil May Help Prevent Erratic Heartbeats". Chicago Sun-Times . Archived from the original on March 29, 2015. Retrieved January 2, 2015– via HighBeam Research.
  8. 1 2 Hans Vogel, ed. (2007). "A-5: Anti-Arrythmic Activity". Drug Discovery and Evaluation: Pharmacological Assays (3rd ed.). pp. 306–7. ISBN   9783540714200.
  9. ↑ George E. Billman (2006). "A comprehensive review and analysis of 25 years of data from an in vivo canine model of sudden cardiac death: implications for future anti-arrhythmic drug development". Pharmacol. Ther. 111 (3): 808–35. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2006.01.002. PMID   16483666.
  10. 1 2 Michel de Lorgeril; Patricia Salen (2008). "Dietary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease". Wild-Type Food in Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Springer. ISBN   978-1-59745-330-1.
  11. 1 2 Alexander Leaf; Jiang X. Kang; Yong-Fu Xiao (2005). "Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Ventricular Arrhythmias". In Artemis P. Simopoulos (ed.). Nutrition and Fitness, Obesity, The Metabolic Syndrome, Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer (Vol 94). Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. ISBN   978-3-8055-7945-2.
  12. ↑ Alexander Leaf; Jing X. Kang; Yong-Fu Xiao; George E. Billman (2003). "Clinical Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Deat=h by n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Mechanism of Prevention of Arrhythmias by n-3 Fish Oils". Circulation. 107 (21): 2646–2652. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000069566.78305.33 . PMID   12782616.
  13. 1 2 3 Dwain L. Eckberg (2008). "Arterial Baroreflexes in Ischaemic Heart Disease, and their role in sudden cardiac death". In Marek Malik; A. John Camm (eds.). Dynamic Electrocardiography. John Wiley & Sons.
  14. ↑ Michael E. O’Leary (2001). "Inhibition of Human Ether-A-Go-Go Potassium Channels by Cocaine". Molecular Pharmacology. 59 (2): 269–277. doi:10.1124/mol.59.2.269. PMID   11160863. S2CID   8473278.
  15. ↑ G E Billman; H Hallaq; A Leaf (May 10, 1994). "Prevention of ischemia-induced ventricular fibrillation by omega 3 fatty acids". PNAS. 91 (10): 4427–4430. Bibcode:1994PNAS...91.4427B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.10.4427 . PMC   43798 . PMID   8183925.
  16. 1 2 Jean Carper (July 14, 1994). "Fish Wards Off Erratic Heartbeats". Chicago-Sun Times. King Features Syndicate.
  17. ↑ Alexander Leaf; Christine M. Albert; Mark Josephson; David Steinhaus; Jeffrey Kluger; Jing X. Kang; Benjamin Cox; Hui Zhang; David Schoenfeld (2005). "Prevention of Fatal Arrhythmias in High-Risk Subjects by Fish Oil n-3 Fatty Acid Intake". Circulation. 112 (18): 2762–2768. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.549527 . PMID   16267249.
  18. ↑ Alexander Leaf (March 2001). "Medicine or Physiology: My Personal Mix". Annual Review of Physiology. 63: 1–14. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.63.1.1. PMID   11181946.
  19. ↑ George E. Billman; Jing X. Kang; Alexander Leaf (1999). "Prevention of sudden cardiac death by dietary pure ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs". Circulation. 99 (18): 2452–2457. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.99.18.2452 . PMID   10318669.
  20. 1 2 Earle Holland (April 15, 2009). "Background on Billman's Heart Studies Involving the Use of Dogs". Ohio State University.
  21. ↑ Y.T. Wen; J.H. Dai; Q. Gao (May 2014). "Effects of Omega-3 fatty acid on major cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with coronary heart disease: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases. 24 (5): 470–475. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2013.12.004. PMID   24472636.
  22. ↑ G Khoueiry; N Abi Rafeh; E Sullivan; F Saiful; Z Jaffery; DN Kenigsberg; SC Krishnan; S Khanal; S Bekheit; M Kowalski (July 2013). "Do omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce risk of sudden cardiac death and ventricular arrhythmias? A meta-analysis of randomized trials". Heart & Lung. 42 (4): 251–6. doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2013.03.006. PMID   23714269.
  23. 1 2 Charlie Boss (May 12, 2007). "Research on dogs at OSU protested". The Columbus Dispatch. p. 1B. Archived from the original on March 29, 2015 – via HighBeam Research.
  24. 1 2 Richard Oviatt (April 23, 2009). "Ohio State U. abuses dogs, PETA says". The Lantern.
  25. 1 2 Charlie Boss (June 25, 2009). "Feds clear OSU researcher of dog-cruelty allegations". The Columbus Dispatch. p. 1B.
  26. 1 2 "An Open Letter from Ohio State University". Ohio State University. August 26, 2010. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
  27. ↑ Alice Thomas (March 18, 2004). "OSU Lands Noted Cancer Researcher". The Columbus Dispatch. p. 1B.
  28. ↑ George E. Billman (Summer 2005). "The Dewalt Billmann Dilemma". Journal of the Berks County Genealogical Society. 25 (4).
  29. ↑ "Billman, GE Citation Report", Web of Science, 5.15, Thomas Reuters, 2014
  30. ↑ "Description of Novel Therapeutic Targets for Antiarrhythmic Drugs". John Wiley and Sons. Retrieved December 11, 2014.
  31. ↑ Peter R. Kowey (2011). "Book Review: Novel Therapeutic Targets for Antiarrhythmic Drugs". Circulation. 123 (7): e241–e242. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.980037 .
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