Heliophysics Science Division

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Science of IRIS mission. Understanding the interface between the photosphere and corona remains a fundamental challenge in solar and heliospheric science. Source: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Science of IRIS mission.jpg
Science of IRIS mission. Understanding the interface between the photosphere and corona remains a fundamental challenge in solar and heliospheric science. Source: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

The Heliophysics Science Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA) conducts research on the Sun, its extended Solar System environment (the heliosphere), and interactions of Earth, other planets, small bodies, and interstellar gas with the heliosphere. Division research also encompasses geospace—Earth's uppermost atmosphere, the ionosphere, and the magnetosphere—and the changing environmental conditions throughout the coupled heliosphere (solar system weather).

Contents

Scientists in the Heliophysics Science Division develop models, spacecraft missions and instruments, and systems to manage and disseminate heliophysical data. They interpret and evaluate data gathered from instruments, draw comparisons with computer simulations and theoretical models, and publish the results. The Division also conducts education and public outreach programs to communicate the excitement and social value of NASA heliophysics. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Laboratories

Goddard's Heliophysics Science Division consists of four separate laboratories. [5] [6]

Solar Physics Laboratory

The Solar Physics Laboratory works to understand the Sun as a star and as the primary driver of activity throughout the Solar System. Their research expands knowledge of the Earth-Sun system and helps to enable robotic and human exploration. [7]

Heliospheric Physics Laboratory

The Heliospheric Physics Laboratory develops instruments and models to investigate the origin and evolution of the solar wind, low-energy cosmic rays, and the interaction of the Sun's heliosphere with the local interstellar medium. The Laboratory designs and implements unique multi-mission and multidisciplinary data services to advance NASA's solar-terrestrial program and our understanding of the Sun-Earth system. [8]

Geospace Physics Laboratory

The Geospace Physics Laboratory focuses on processes occurring in the magnetospheres of magnetized planets and on the interaction of the solar wind with planetary magnetospheres. Researchers also study processes, such as magnetofluid turbulence, that permeate the heliosphere from the solar atmosphere to the edge of the Solar System. [9]

Space Weather Laboratory

The Space Weather Laboratory performs research and analysis of the physical processes underlying space weather. It conducts space-based, ground-based, theoretical, and modeling studies of the chain of events that triggers space-weather effects of interest to NASA, other U.S. government agencies, and the general public. Laboratory staff lead the development of space environment projects and missions, and provide project scientists for NASA flight missions with space weather applications. The Laboratory communicates NASA research results to the scientific community, various space weather interests, and the general public. [10] The Space Weather Laboratory also includes the Community Coordinated Modeling Center, which is a multi-agency partnership to enable, support and perform the research and development for next-generation space science and space weather models. [11]

Projects and missions

This division of Goddard Space Flight Center has interests in various projects and missions. [12] [13] In addition to performing research based on NASA solar observatories in space, the division manages many heliophysics missions on behalf of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA headquarters. These include:

Advanced Composition Explorer

The Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) observes and measures the composition of particles from the solar wind as well as galactic cosmic rays. Its prime objective is to improve measurements of the composition of diverse samples of matter associated with the Sun, the interstellar medium, and the galaxy surrounding us. ACE is capable of providing near-real-time solar wind and magnetic field information that aids in forecasting space weather. Advance knowledge of solar wind disturbances heading toward Earth – of about half an hour – can help mitigate the effects of geomagnetic storms that can overload power grids and disrupt communications on Earth. [14]

ARTEMIS

The ARTEMIS, or Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon's Interaction with the Sun, mission studies the Moon's space environment, surface composition and magnetic field, and core structure. ARTEMIS uses two spacecraft from the THEMIS magnetosphere mission that were moved into place near the Moon. [15]

BARREL

This division is also involved in the Balloon Array for Radiation-belt Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL) study. Twenty balloons were launched during a January 2013 campaign in Antarctica to study a space weather phenomenon, during which electrons stream down toward the poles from the two Van Allen Belts, which surround Earth. It is a NASA-funded mission. [16] [17]

CINDI

The Coupled Ion-Neutral Dynamics Investigations (CINDI) is a project to understand the dynamics of Earth's ionosphere. CINDI provides two instruments for the Communication/Navigation Outage Forecast System (C/NOFS) satellite, which is a United States Air Force project. CINDI helps predict the behavior of equatorial ionospheric irregularities, which can cause major problems for communications and navigation systems. [18]

Cluster

Cluster is a joint ESA/NASA mission that provides in-situ investigation of plasma processes in Earth's magnetosphere using four identical spacecraft. The four spacecraft make it possible to better observe three-dimensional and time-varying phenomena, as well as to distinguish between the two as it moves through space in its orbit around Earth. [19]

EZIE

The Electrojet Zeeman Imaging Explorer (EZIE) is aimed at studying how the electric currents in the Earth's atmosphere, linking the aurora to the Earth's magnetosphere. It is expected to launch no earlier than June 2024. [20]

Geotail

Geotail is a joint JAXA/NASA mission. Its primary objective is to study the dynamics of the entire length of Earth's magnetotail, from the near-Earth region to the distant tail. [21]

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

Engaging in solar and heliospheric science, the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) mission is intended to study of the solar atmosphere, and in particular, of the interface between the photosphere and corona. The IRIS mission will accomplish this by tracing the flow of energy and plasma through the chromosphere and transition region into the corona using spectrometry and imaging. IRIS is designed to provide significant new information to increase the understanding of energy transport into the corona and solar wind and provide an archetype for all stellar atmospheres. The unique instrument capabilities, coupled with state of the art 3-D modeling, will fill a large gap in the knowledge of this dynamic region of the solar atmosphere. The mission will extend the scientific output of existing heliophysics spacecraft that follow the effects of energy release processes from the Sun to Earth. The IRIS mission launched June 27, 2013. [2] [22] [23]

Interstellar Boundary Explorer

The Interstellar Boundary Explorer, or IBEX, images the outer boundaries of the heliosphere, focusing on how the solar wind interacts with the interstellar medium and its magnetic fields at the very edges of the Solar System. IBEX maps the region by measuring the energetic neutral atoms that are created near the boundary, creating a new map every six months. After completing and analyzing the first maps, IBEX now monitors changes that correspond to variations in solar activity. [24]

Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager

The Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager, or RHESSI, combines high-resolution imaging in hard X-rays and gamma rays with high-resolution spectroscopy to explore the basic physics of particle acceleration and energy release in solar flares. Such information improves our understanding of the fundamental processes that are involved in generating solar flares and coronal mass ejections. These super-energetic solar eruptive events are the most extreme drivers of space weather and present significant dangers in space and on Earth. [25]

Solar-C EUVST Mission

SOLAR-C is a joint NASA/JAXA mission, along with other international partners, targeted for launch in July 2028. [26] The Extreme Ultraviolet High-Throughput Spectroscopic Telescope (EUVST) will study how the solar atmosphere releases solar wind and propagates eruptions of solar material, and its influence on the radiation throughout the solar system. [20]

Solar Dynamics Observatory

NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes space weather. Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (astronauts and satellites out in space and even the other planets). SDO is helping us understand where the Sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the Sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the Sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the Sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events. [27]

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

A joint ESA/NASA mission, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, or SOHO, studies the sun, from deep inside its core to the outer corona and solar wind. SOHO has been capturing images of the dynamic flares and coronal mass ejections on the Sun since 1996. The mission has provided an unprecedented breadth and depth of information about the Sun, with a unique combination of instruments that study its interior through the hot and dynamic atmosphere to the solar wind and its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its coronagraphs – images that observe the Sun's atmosphere by blocking out the bright sun in the middle – remain a key component for forecasting the speed, direction and strength of coronal mass ejections as they erupt from the Sun. In addition to watching the Sun, SOHO has become the most prolific discoverer of comets in astronomical history: as of 2012, over 2000 comets have been found by SOHO. [28]

STEREO

The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory, or STEREO, mission employs two nearly identical space-based observatories to provide the stereoscopic measurements to study the sun. With a pair of viewpoints, scientists are able to see the structure and evolution of solar storms as they blast from the Sun and travel out through space. STEREO's instruments provide a unique combination of observations to help understand the causes and mechanisms of coronal mass ejections and to characterize how they propagate through the Solar System. STEREO also helps determine what powers the acceleration of energetic particles from the Sun and provides information on the structure of the solar wind. [29]

THEMIS

THEMIS answers fundamental questions concerning a type of space weather called a substorm that can abruptly and explosively release solar wind energy stored within Earth's magnetotail. Substorms cause auroras at high latitudes, and THEMIS seeks to understand this process. Originally five spacecraft, THEMIS now consists of three, as two were repurposed to study the Moon in the ARTEMIS mission. The mission also relies on a dedicated array of ground observatories located in Canada and the northern United States. [15]

TIMED

The Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, or TIMED, mission explores Earth's mesosphere and lower thermosphere (40–50 miles up), the least explored and understood region of the atmosphere. Solar events, as well as temperature changes in the stratosphere can perturb this region, but the overall structure of and responses to these effects are not understood. Advances in remote sensing technology employed by TIMED enable it to explore this region on a global basis from space. [30]

TWINS

The instruments on the Two Wide-Angle Imaging Neutral-Atom Spectrometers, or TWINS, provide stereo imaging of Earth's magnetosphere—the region surrounding the planet, controlled by Earth's magnetic field and containing the Van Allen radiation belts and other energetic charged particles. TWINS enables three-dimensional global visualization of this region, leading to greatly enhanced understanding of the connections between different areas of the magnetosphere and their relation to the solar wind. [31]

Van Allen Probes

The Van Allen Probes consist of twin spacecraft studying the extreme and dynamic regions of space known as the Van Allen Radiation Belts that surround Earth. The radiation belts intensify or weaken over time as part of the much larger space weather system driven by the energy and material that erupt off the Sun's surface and fill the entire Solar System. [32]

Voyager mission

The Voyager missions ( Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 ) are a part of NASA's Heliophysics System Observatory, sponsored by the Heliophysics Division of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. The Voyager spacecraft were built and continue to be operated by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in Pasadena, Calif. On December 4, 2012, eleven billion miles from Earth, NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft has entered a "magnetic highway" that connects the Solar System to interstellar space. The "magnetic highway" is a place in the far reaches of the Solar System where the Sun's magnetic field connects to the magnetic field of interstellar space. In this region, the Sun's magnetic field lines are connected to interstellar magnetic field lines, allowing particles from inside the heliosphere to zip away and particles from interstellar space to zoom in. In recent years, the speed of the solar wind around Voyager 1 has slowed to zero, and the intensity of the magnetic field has increased. [33]

Additional Projects

The Space Physics Data Facility (SPDF) is a project of the Heliospheric Science Division (HSD) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. SPDF consists of web-based services for survey and high resolution data and trajectories. The Facility supports data from most NASA Heliophysics missions to promote correlative and collaborative research across discipline and mission boundaries. [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar wind</span> Stream of charged particles from the Sun

The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0.5 and 10 keV. The composition of the solar wind plasma also includes a mixture of materials found in the solar plasma: trace amounts of heavy ions and atomic nuclei of elements such as C, N, O, Ne, Mg, Si, S, and Fe. There are also rarer traces of some other nuclei and isotopes such as P, Ti, Cr, and 58Ni, 60Ni, and 62Ni. Superimposed with the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude. Its particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. The boundary separating the corona from the solar wind is called the Alfvén surface.

<i>Voyager 1</i> NASA space probe launched in 1977

Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977, as part of the Voyager program to study the outer Solar System and the interstellar space beyond the Sun's heliosphere. It was launched 16 days after its twin Voyager 2. It communicates through the NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) to receive routine commands and to transmit data to Earth. Real-time distance and velocity data is provided by NASA and JPL. At a distance of 163 AU from Earth as of January 2024, it is the most distant human-made object from Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voyager program</span> Ongoing NASA interstellar program

The Voyager program is an American scientific program that employs two robotic interstellar probes, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2. They were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a favorable alignment of the two gas giants Jupiter and Saturn and the ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, to fly near them while collecting data for transmission back to Earth. After launch, the decision was made to send Voyager 2 near Uranus and Neptune to collect data for transmission back to Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heliosphere</span> Region of space dominated by the Sun

The heliosphere is the magnetosphere, astrosphere, and outermost atmospheric layer of the Sun. It takes the shape of a vast, tailed bubble-like region of space. In plasma physics terms, it is the cavity formed by the Sun in the surrounding interstellar medium. The "bubble" of the heliosphere is continuously "inflated" by plasma originating from the Sun, known as the solar wind. Outside the heliosphere, this solar plasma gives way to the interstellar plasma permeating the Milky Way. As part of the interplanetary magnetic field, the heliosphere shields the Solar System from significant amounts of cosmic ionizing radiation; uncharged gamma rays are, however, not affected. Its name was likely coined by Alexander J. Dessler, who is credited with the first use of the word in the scientific literature in 1967. The scientific study of the heliosphere is heliophysics, which includes space weather and space climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Heliophysical Year</span>

The International Heliophysical Year is a UN-sponsored scientifically driven international program of scientific collaboration to understand external drivers of planetary environments and universal processes in solar-terrestrial-planetary-heliospheric physics. The IHY will focus on advancements in all aspects of the heliosphere and its interaction with the interstellar medium. This effort culminates in the "International Heliophysical Year" (IHY) in 2007-2008. The IHY concluded in February, 2009, but was largely continued via the International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI)

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar Orbiter</span> European space-based solar observatory

The Solar Orbiter (SolO) is a Sun-observing probe developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) with a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) contribution. Solar Orbiter, designed to obtain detailed measurements of the inner heliosphere and the nascent solar wind, will also perform close observations of the polar regions of the Sun which is difficult to do from Earth. These observations are important in investigating how the Sun creates and controls its heliosphere.

Solar physics is the branch of astrophysics that specializes in the study of the Sun. It deals with detailed measurements that are possible only for our closest star. It intersects with many disciplines of pure physics, astrophysics, and computer science, including fluid dynamics, plasma physics including magnetohydrodynamics, seismology, particle physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, stellar evolution, space physics, spectroscopy, radiative transfer, applied optics, signal processing, computer vision, computational physics, stellar physics and solar astronomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar Dynamics Observatory</span> NASA mission, launched in 2010 to SE-L1

The Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) is a NASA mission which has been observing the Sun since 2010. Launched on 11 February 2010, the observatory is part of the Living With a Star (LWS) program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interstellar Boundary Explorer</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Interstellar Boundary Explorer is a NASA satellite in Earth orbit that uses energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) to image the interaction region between the Solar System and interstellar space. The mission is part of NASA's Small Explorer program and was launched with a Pegasus-XL launch vehicle on 19 October 2008.

Space physics, also known as space plasma physics, is the study of naturally occurring plasmas within Earth's upper atmosphere and the rest of the Solar System. It includes the topics of aeronomy, aurorae, planetary ionospheres and magnetospheres, radiation belts, and space weather. It also encompasses the discipline of heliophysics, which studies the solar physics of the Sun, its solar wind, the coronal heating problem, solar energetic particles, and the heliosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">THEMIS</span> NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) mission began in February 2007 as a constellation of five NASA satellites to study energy releases from Earth's magnetosphere known as substorms, magnetic phenomena that intensify auroras near Earth's poles. The name of the mission is an acronym alluding to the Titan Themis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heliophysics</span> Science of the heliosphere

Heliophysics is the physics of the Sun and its connection with the Solar System. NASA defines heliophysics as "(1) the comprehensive new term for the science of the Sun - Solar System Connection, (2) the exploration, discovery, and understanding of Earth's space environment, and (3) the system science that unites all of the linked phenomena in the region of the cosmos influenced by a star like our Sun."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energetic neutral atom</span> Technology to create global images of otherwise invisible phenomena

Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) imaging is a technology used to create global images of otherwise invisible phenomena in the magnetospheres of planets and throughout the heliosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space research</span> Scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in outer space

Space research is scientific study carried out in outer space, and by studying outer space. From the use of space technology to the observable universe, space research is a wide research field. Earth science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics all apply to the space research environment. The term includes scientific payloads at any altitude from deep space to low Earth orbit, extended to include sounding rocket research in the upper atmosphere, and high-altitude balloons.

The Arctowski Medal is awarded by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences "for studies in solar physics and solar-terrestrial relationships." Named in honor of Henryk Arctowski, it was first awarded in 1969.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NASA Heliophysics</span>

NASA Heliophysics is an aspect of NASA science that enables understanding the Sun, heliosphere, and planetary environments as a single connected system. In addition to solar processes, this domain of study includes the interaction of solar plasma and solar radiation with Earth, the other planets, and the galaxy. By analyzing the connections between the Sun, solar wind, and planetary space environments, the fundamental physical processes that occur throughout the universe are uncovered. Understanding the connections between the Sun and its planets will allow for predicting the impacts of solar interaction on humans, technological systems, and even the presence of life itself. This is also the stated goal of Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe</span> Planned NASA heliophysics mission

The Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe(IMAP) is a heliophysics mission that will simultaneously investigate two important and coupled science topics in the heliosphere: the acceleration of energetic particles and interaction of the solar wind with the local interstellar medium. These science topics are coupled because particles accelerated in the inner heliosphere play crucial roles in the outer heliospheric interaction. In 2018, NASA selected a team led by David J. McComas of Princeton University to implement the mission, which is currently planned to launch in February 2025. IMAP will be a Sun-tracking spin-stabilized satellite in orbit about the Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange point with a science payload of ten instruments. IMAP will also continuously broadcast real-time in-situ data that can be used for space weather prediction.

NASA's Solar Terrestrial Probes program (STP) is a series of missions focused on studying the Sun-Earth system. It is part of NASA's Heliophysics Science Division within the Science Mission Directorate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space climate</span> Branch of solar physics and aeronomy

Space climate is the long-term variation in solar activity within the heliosphere, including the solar wind, the Interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), and their effects in the near-Earth environment, including the magnetosphere of Earth and the ionosphere, the upper and lower atmosphere, climate, and other related systems. The scientific study of space climate is an interdisciplinary field of space physics, solar physics, heliophysics, and geophysics. It is thus conceptually related to terrestrial climatology, and its effects on the atmosphere of Earth are considered in climate science.

Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) is a future mission by NASA to study the unexplored region from the middle of the solar corona out to 1 AU from the Sun. PUNCH will consist of a constellation of four microsatellites that through continuous 3D deep-field imaging, will observe the corona and heliosphere as elements of a single, connected system. The four microsatellites were initially scheduled to be launched in October 2023, but they have since been moved to an April 2025 launch in rideshare with SPHEREx.

References

  1. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Heliophysics Science Division (670) Home. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  2. 1 2 Hesse, Michael (May 2013). "Refereed Publications for 2013". Heliophysics Science Division (670) Publications. Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
  3. ↑ Wu, C. C.; Lepping, R. P.; Gopalswamy, N. (2006). "Relationships Among Magnetic Clouds, CMES, and Geomagnetic Storms" (Free PDF download). Solar Physics. 239 (1–2): 449. Bibcode:2006SoPh..239..449W. doi:10.1007/s11207-006-0037-1. S2CID   121538330.
  4. ↑ Slavin, J. A.; Acuna, M. H.; Anderson, B. J.; Baker, D. N.; Benna, M.; Gloeckler, G.; Gold, R. E.; Ho, G. C.; et al. (2008). "Mercury's Magnetosphere After Messenger (spacecraft) First Flyby" (Free PDF download). Science. 321 (5885): 85–9. Bibcode:2008Sci...321...85S. doi:10.1126/science.1159040. PMID   18599776. S2CID   206513355.
  5. ↑ Gilbert, Holly, Keith T. Strong, Julia L.R. Saba, Robert L. Kilgore, Judith B. Clark, and Yvonne M. Strong, Editors. "GSFC Heliophysics Science Division FY2010 Annual Report" (PDF). NASA.{{cite web}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Organization Chart – Heliophysics Science Division (670). National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  7. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Solar Physics Laboratory (671) Home. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  8. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Heliospheric Physics Laboratory (672) Home. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  9. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Geospace Physics Laboratory (673) Home. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  10. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Space Weather Laboratory (674) Home. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  11. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Community Coordinated Modeling Center Home. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  12. ↑ Hesse, Michael (2013). "Missions & Projects – Heliophysics Science Division (670)". NASA.
  13. ↑ Hesse, Michael (2013). "Heliophysics Science Division (670) Highlights". NASA. (Press Releases & Feature Stories)
  14. ↑ "NASA Science Missions: ACE". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  15. 1 2 "NASA THEMIS Mission Site". 6 March 2015.
  16. ↑ NASA’s BARREL Mission. 2013
  17. ↑ Millan, R. M.; McCarthy, M. P.; Sample, J. G.; Smith, D. M.; Thompson, L. D.; McGaw, D. G.; Woodger, L. A.; Hewitt, J. G.; Comess, M. D.; Yando, K. B.; Liang, A. X.; Anderson, B. A.; Knezek, N. R.; Rexroad, W. Z.; Scheiman, J. M.; Bowers, G. S.; Halford, A. J.; Collier, A. B.; Clilverd, M. A.; Lin, R. P.; Hudson, M. K. (2013). "The Balloon Array for RBSP Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL)". Space Science Reviews. 179 (1–4): 503. Bibcode:2013SSRv..179..503M. doi: 10.1007/s11214-013-9971-z .
  18. ↑ "NASA-CINDI". 28 April 2016.
  19. ↑ "Missions – Cluster II – NASA science". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  20. 1 2 Brown, Katherine (2020-12-29). "NASA Approves Heliophysics Missions to Explore Sun, Aurora". NASA. Retrieved 2020-12-31.
  21. ↑ "Missions – Geotail – NASA Science". Archived from the original on 2013-08-26. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  22. ↑ "NASA: IRIS Launch Updates". NASA. 26 June 2013.
  23. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from (IRIS) Mission Statement. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  24. ↑ "NASA Missions – IBEX". 6 March 2015.
  25. ↑ "Missions – RHESII – NASA Science". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  26. ↑ Shimizu, Toshifumi (15 December 2023). SH54A-03 The SOLAR-C EUVST mission: Coronal physics advanced by novel EUV spectroscopy. AGU23 . Retrieved 26 December 2023.
  27. ↑ Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) mission. NASA. 2013.
  28. ↑ "NASA – SOHO". 15 April 2015.
  29. ↑ "NASA – STEREO". 20 March 2015.
  30. ↑ "Missions – TIMED – NASA Science". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  31. ↑ "Missions – TWINS A & B – NASA science". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  32. ↑ "NASA – Van Allen Probes". 17 March 2015.
  33. ↑ This content is in the Public Domain on NASA's website.
  34. ↑ PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from NASA's Space Physics Data Facility (SPDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

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