Housing insecurity in the United States

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Average cost of rent in the US (2014-2022)
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Cost of housing by state (2000-2022)

Housing insecurity is the lack of security in an individual shelter that is the result of high housing costs relative to income and is associated with poor housing quality, unstable neighborhoods, overcrowding, and homelessness. [1]

Contents

Housing shortages are a primary cause of high housing prices and rents[citation needed!]. Climate change has also increased average housing costs with higher insurance premiums [2] and power bills [3] while also increasing displacement risks, especially in coastal areas. [4] [5]

Measuring housing insecurity

Researchers from the University of Southern California proposed measuring housing insecurity through the following indicators: [6] housing instability, housing affordability, housing safety, housing quality, neighborhood safety, neighborhood quality, and homelessness.

The Department of Health and Human Services has defined housing insecurity by taking into account proportion to income, housing quality, neighborhoods, overcrowding, and homelessness. [7]

The Center for Disease Control used the frequency of responses to the question of, "How often in the past 12 months would you say you were worried or stressed about having enough money to pay your rent/mortgage? Sometimes, usually, or always?", to identify those who are housing insecure and to assist in their research on disease prevention. [8]

The Department of Housing and Urban Development defines housing insecurity based on multiple factors in the unit based on the quality of the house. Based on answers on the American Housing Survey, they deem people housing insecure and the house inadequate based on these structural conditions: [9]

Housing affordability

1 bedroom rent by year by state (2006-2022) 1 bedroom rent by year.webp
1 bedroom rent by year by state (2006-2022)

Housing affordability is defined as the ratio of annualized housing costs to annual income. Different income based measures use different thresholds; however most organizations use either the 30% or 50% threshold, meaning that an individual is housing insecure if they spend more than 30% or 50% of their annual income on housing.

The median rent increased from $483 in 2000 to $1,216 in 2021; more than doubled in the past two decades. [10] According to Zillow data, the average U.S. home was worth about $230,000 at the start of 2020. In May 2023 it has reached over $330,000. As housing expenses rose in 2021, households with incomes under $30,000 had little money left over after paying for utilities and rent - only approximately $380 per month, down from nearly $600 two decades earlier. [11]

Housing safety

Housing safety is defined as a housing issue that presents an imminent health threat, such as inadequate heating capacity, faulty foundation, evidence of rodents, exposed electrical and more. Housing quality is defined as housing that is substandard but does not pose an imminent health risk, such as no cooking unit, no hot/cold water, no drinking water, faulty sewage, and more. [12] [13]

Neighborhood safety

Neighborhood safety is defined as living in a neighborhood that presents imminent health threats, such as a factory is located within half a block, unit is in a flood plain, unsatisfactory police presence, and more. Neighborhood quality is defined as households in neighborhoods with undesirable characteristics that do not pose an imminent health risk, such as poor city/county services, unit is boarded up, roads need repairs, no stores within fifteen minutes, and more. Homelessness in the United States is defined as "households who define housing type at the time of interviews as either tent, cave, railroad car, unspecified housing unit, a boat, an RV, or an unoccupied site for a mobile home, trailer or tent." If an individual meets one of the above criteria, then they are considered housing insecure under this definition. [12]

Adequate housing

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which the United States is a signee, includes the right to adequate housing. They define adequate housing as having security of tenure, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location, and cultural adequacy. Many of these tenants are similar to the ones above, such as availability of services (neighborhood quality), affordability, habitability (housing quality and housing safety), and location (neighborhood safety and neighborhood quality). [14]

Additional terms

The UN defines security of tenure as having tenure security which guarantees legal protection against forced evictions, harassment, and other threats. They define accessibility as taking into account the specific needs of disadvantaged and marginalized groups. They define cultural adequacy as respecting and taking into account the expression of cultural identity. If housing does not meet any of these criteria, it is considerate inadequate, or housing insecure. [14]

Rates

The various forms of housing insecurity have been studied in order to find which life circumstances lead families to housing insecurity. Associations between unreliable housing and factors such as race, income, and family type are especially clear.[ original research? ] Housing insecure households are likely to consist of unmarried people. 57% of housing insecure households[ when? ] are made up of unmarried individuals that do not have children. [15] [ better source needed ]

The second largest category[ when? ] is unmarried households with children, which makes up 21% of the distribution. 63% of housing insecure households are extremely low income, which means their annual income is less than the Federal Poverty Level or 30% of the Area Median Income. [15] [ better source needed ] Most people facing housing insecurity are not seniors and are renters. A lack of education has an especially evident association with housing insecurity. Within housing insecure households, 18% of individuals have a bachelor's or graduate degree, while 50% have no college experience. 55% of housing insecure households are white. [16] [ better source needed ]

Rates of housing insecurity are fairly consistent across the United States. For the majority of states, between 10% and 15% of households are housing insecure. Wyoming has the least housing insecurity while California and New York have the most housing insecurity; 20% of households face housing insecurity. [16] [ better source needed ]

In regards to rates of housing inadequacy defined by the American Housing Survey, the number of housing units that were considered extremely inadequate fluctuated between 2005 and 2009. There were 2,021,050 extremely inadequate units that were occupied in 2005, 1,805,960 extremely inadequate units that were occupied in 2007, and 1,863,660 extremely inadequate units that were occupied in 2009. The average number of extremely inadequate units for these three years, 1,896,890 units, amounts to less than 2% of the total number of housing units in the United States. The characteristics that most frequently made units deemed extremely inadequate were shared plumbing facilities (55%) and unacceptably long cold periods (29%).[ non-primary source needed ] 91.6% of extremely inadequate units experienced only one of the listed qualities of an extremely inadequate unit. [9] [ needs update ]

Risk factors

Race/Ethnicity

Those who experience housing insecurity are found to be majorly composed of minority groups such as African Americans and Hispanics, who are twice more likely than whites to experience housing insecurity. [17] Due to their lack of jobs and opportunities, these populations were unable to afford housing even without agreements and restrictions. Around the 1800s, they experienced overcrowding "into tenement housing lacking sanitation, fire safety, and adequate light and ventilation" [18] which using the multiple definitions defined, this is considered housing insecurity.

Coastal communities

Coastal communities have, on average, higher displacement risks from climate change impacts such as sea-level rise, hurricanes and other related weather events. [4] [5]

Impacts

Housing insecurity in the United States has many impacts for the housing insecure. Through cross-sectional analyses, researchers in the 2010s have found several negative factors; yet they acknowledge that it is not currently possible to pinpoint the exact causes and effects. The absence of a valid measure or universal definition for housing insecurity may be a possible reason for lack of research. Despite these implications with research, findings across the board suggest housing insecurity is a negative risk factor when it pertains to health and educational attainment.

Health

In a study that analyzed data from the 2011 Washington State Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System, 29.4% of the 8,416 respondents reported being housing insecure. [8] Housing insecure respondents were approximately "twice as likely to report poor or fair health status" compared to those who did not report being housing insecure. [8] Approximately one third of the housing insecure respondents reported delaying doctor visits due to the costs. [8] 26.9% of the housing insecure respondents were current smokers and "26.3% had poor or fair health". [8]

Through an additional cross-sectional analysis from the 2002 National Survey of America's Families, "housing instability was independently associated with postponed medical care, postponed medications, and increased emergency department visits". [19] Other health outcomes that have been associated with housing insecurity by past studies include: probable GAD, depression, and PTSD. [20]

Education

A longitudinal study assessed the academic achievements of children suggesting there is a link between housing insecurity and performance in school. Researchers reported that homeless and highly mobil children were more likely to be at risk for low academic achievement compared to other students. [21]

Some scholars conclude the aforementioned achievement gaps with homeless and highly mobile students tend to be chronic and "may worsen among older grade cohorts." [22] Highly mobile students were also linked with having "increased rates of grade retention" and more "school-related problems such as expulsion or suspension", compared to other students. [23]

Assistance

One source of assistance is locally located public housing agencies (PHAs) that distribute section 8 vouchers. The vouchers are funded by the U.S. government, specifically the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. These vouchers help low income families or individuals pay for their rent. The PHA determines eligibility based on income, family size and citizenship. Most families that qualify are put on a waitlist, and once they get a voucher, they must be able to find their own housing, and it must meet the safety requirements of the PHA. Once the family meets all the standards, the PHA may partially pay the landlord for the family's rent, requiring the family to pay the difference, or depending on the situation, the PHA may pay for a reasonably priced home. [24]

The National Low Income Housing Coalition (NLIHC) aims to create housing stability in the U.S. by increasing affordable housing and supporting government funded homes. The organization consists of 5 teams: the Research Team, the Policy Team, the Field Team, the Communications Team, and the Administration Team. The Research Team looks at statistics of housing insecurity, and the Policy Team helps inform policy makers about these trends. The Field Team raises awareness and the Communications Team gathers input from the general population about their views of housing insecurity. Finally, the Administration Team oversees the organization and regulates progress. These 5 groups all come together to combat housing insecurity. [25]

Enterprise is another organization that has a plan to end housing insecurity by 2020. Their goal is not only to provide for low income families, but to also improve their psychological and physical well-being. They have 5 pillars that they focus on: homes, systems, connections, resources, and foundation. Their objective is to provide affordable housing with systems that will provide equal opportunity for low income families. Enterprise also looks for opportunities to expand resources in the government to help those in need. Enterprise's 5 pillars come together to shape their main goal of becoming the foundation that will be strong enough to end housing insecurity. [26]

Solutions

Starter homes

New Multifamily Units Constructed For Rent Under 1,000 ft 1,000 - 1,199 ft 1,200 - 1,399 ft 1,400 - 1,799 ft 1,800+ ft For Sale Under 1,000 ft 1,000 - 1,199 ft 1,200 - 1,399 ft 1,400 - 1,799 ft 1,800+ ft New Multifamily Units Constructed.webp
New Multifamily Units Constructed
For Rent
  •   Under 1,000 ft
  •   1,000 - 1,199 ft
  •   1,200 - 1,399 ft
  •   1,400 - 1,799 ft
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For Sale
  •   Under 1,000 ft
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Only 8% of new single family homes built in 2021 were 1,400 ft2 or less and in the 1940s 70% of new housing built was under 1,400 ft2. Local governments regulate out entry level housing with square foot requirements, zoning ordinances, and permits. Condominiums of 500-1,000ft2 that can be owned instead of leased, which could be a studio, 1 bedroom, or 2 bedroom with a reasonable HOA monthly fee and property taxes would be less expensive than renting in the longer run and a way to start building wealth starting out. [27]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Department of Housing and Urban Development</span> Federal government department

The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is one of the executive departments of the U.S. federal government. It administers federal housing and urban development laws. It is headed by the secretary of housing and urban development, who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the president's Cabinet.

Section 8 of the Housing Act of 1937, commonly known as Section 8, provides rental housing assistance to low-income households in the United States by paying private landlords on behalf of these tenants. Approximately 68% of this assistance benefits seniors, children, and individuals with disabilities. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) oversees Section 8 programs, which are administered locally by public housing agencies (PHAs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Single-room occupancy</span> Type of low-cost housing

Single-room occupancy (SRO) is a type of low-cost housing typically aimed at residents with low or minimal incomes, or single adults who like a minimalist lifestyle, who rent small, furnished single rooms with a bed, chair, and sometimes a small desk. SRO units are rented out as permanent residence and/or primary residence to individuals, within a multi-tenant building where tenants share a kitchen, toilets or bathrooms. SRO units range from 7 to 13 square metres. In some instances, contemporary units may have a small refrigerator, microwave, or sink.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homeless women in the United States</span>

Out of 10,000 female individuals 13 are homeless in the United States. Although studies reflect that circumstances vary depending on each individual, the average homeless woman is 35 years old, has children, is a member of a minority community, and has experienced homelessness more than once in their lifetime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing</span> Housing affordable to those with a median household income

Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median, as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on affordable housing refers to mortgages and a number of forms that exist along a continuum – from emergency homeless shelters, to transitional housing, to non-market rental, to formal and informal rental, indigenous housing, and ending with affordable home ownership. Demand for affordable housing is generally associated with a decrease in housing affordability, such as rent increases, in addition to increased homelessness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housing</span> Living spaces

Housing refers to the usage and possibly construction of shelter as living spaces, individually or collectively. Housing is a basic human need and a human right, playing a critical role in shaping the quality of life for individuals, families, and communities, As such it is the main issue of housing organization and policy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subsidized housing in the United States</span> Rental assistance for low-income households

In the United States, subsidized housing is administered by federal, state and local agencies to provide subsidized rental assistance for low-income households. Public housing is priced much below the market rate, allowing people to live in more convenient locations rather than move away from the city in search of lower rents. In most federally-funded rental assistance programs, the tenants' monthly rent is set at 30% of their household income. Now increasingly provided in a variety of settings and formats, originally public housing in the U.S. consisted primarily of one or more concentrated blocks of low-rise and/or high-rise apartment buildings. These complexes are operated by state and local housing authorities which are authorized and funded by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In 2020, there were one million public housing units. In 2022, about 5.2 million American households received some form of federal rental assistance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housing inequality</span>

Housing inequality is a disparity in the quality of housing in a society which is a form of economic inequality. The right to housing is recognized by many national constitutions, and the lack of adequate housing can have adverse consequences for an individual or a family. The term may apply regionally, temporally or culturally. Housing inequality is directly related to racial, social, income and wealth inequality. It is often the result of market forces, discrimination and segregation.

Housing discrimination in the United States refers to the historical and current barriers, policies, and biases that prevent equitable access to housing. Housing discrimination became more pronounced after the abolition of slavery in 1865, typically as part of Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation. The federal government didn't begin to take action against these laws until 1917, when the Supreme Court struck down ordinances prohibiting African-Americans from occupying or owning buildings in majority-white neighborhoods in Buchanan v. Warley. However, the federal government as well as local governments continued to be directly responsible for housing discrimination through redlining and race-restricted covenants until the Civil Rights Act of 1968.

Source of income discrimination describes when landlords refuse to rent to tenants using housing vouchers or other government assistance. Housing advocates argue the practice keeps vulnerable communities from accessing housing, although landlords point to lack of protections for tenants as their right to refuse service.

Non-profit housing developers build affordable housing for individuals under-served by the private market. The non-profit housing sector is composed of community development corporations (CDC) and national and regional non-profit housing organizations whose mission is to provide for the needy, the elderly, working households, and others that the private housing market does not adequately serve. Of the total 4.6 million units in the social housing sector, non-profit developers have produced approximately 1.547 million units, or roughly one-third of the total stock. Since non-profit developers seldom have the financial resources or access to capital that for-profit entities do, they often use multiple layers of financing, usually from a variety of sources for both development and operation of these affordable housing units.

Housing quality and health outcomes in the United States are inextricably linked. As a matter of U.S. public health, substandard housing is associated with outcomes such as injury, respiratory infections, heavy metal poisoning and asthma. It may also be associated with mental disability and with obesity and its related morbidities.

The Rental Assistance Demonstration is a federal housing program that was enacted as part of the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2012, and is administered by the U.S. Department of Housing & Urban Development (HUD). Broadly, the purpose of the Rental Assistance Demonstration is to provide a set of tools to address the unmet capital needs of deeply affordable, federally assisted rental housing properties in order to maintain both the viability of the properties and their long-term affordability. It also simplifies the administrative oversight of the properties by the federal government. Specifically, RAD authorizes the conversion of a property's federal funding from one form to another, where the initial form presents structural impediments to private capital investment and the new form is not only familiar to lenders and investors but, since its enactment in 1974, has leveraged billions in private investment for the development and rehabilitation of deeply affordable rental housing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Family homelessness</span> Socioeconomic phenomenon

Family homelessness refers to a family unit who do not have access to long term accommodation due to various circumstances such as socioeconomic status, access to resources and relationship breakdowns. In some Western countries, such as the United States, family homelessness is a new form of poverty, and a fast growing group of the homelessness population. Some American researchers argue that family homelessness is the inevitable result of imbalanced “low-income housing ratio” where there are more low-income households than there are low-cost housing units. A study in 2018 projected a total of 56,342 family households were recognized as homeless. Roughly 16,390 of these people were living in a place not meant for human habitation. It is believed that homeless families make up about a third of the United States’ population, with generally women being the lead of the household.

The term housing crisis refers to acute problems with the provision or market for shelter and lodging. These include shortage and affordability crises as well as financial crises related to the real estate sector.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eviction in the United States</span> Landlord removals of rental housing tenants in the North American country

Eviction in the United States refers to the pattern of tenant removal by landlords in the United States. In an eviction process, landlords forcibly remove tenants from their place of residence and reclaim the property. Landlords may decide to evict tenants who have failed to pay rent, violated lease terms, or possess an expired lease. Landlords may also choose not to renew a tenant's lease, however, this does not constitute an eviction. In the United States, eviction procedures, landlord rights, and tenant protections vary by state and locality. Historically, the United States has seen changes in domestic eviction rates during periods of major socio-political and economic turmoil—including the Great Depression, the 2008 Recession, and the COVID-19 pandemic. High eviction rates are driven by affordable housing shortages and rising housing costs. Across the United States, low-income and disadvantaged neighborhoods have disproportionately higher eviction rates. Certain demographics—including low income renters, Black and Hispanic renters, women, and people with children—are also at a greater risk of eviction. Additionally, eviction filings remain on renters' public records. This can make it more difficult for renters to access future housing, since most landlords will not rent to a tenant with a history of eviction. Eviction and housing instability are also linked to many negative health and life outcomes, including homelessness, poverty, and poor mental and physical health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing by country</span>

Affordable housing is housing that is deemed affordable to those with a median household income as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. A general rule is no more than 30% of gross monthly income should be spent on housing, to be considered affordable as the challenges of promoting affordable housing varies by location.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housing in the United States</span> Overview of housing in the United States

Housing in the United States comes in a variety of forms and tenures. The rate of homeownership in the United States, as measured by the fraction of units that are owner-occupied, was 64% as of 2017. This rate is less than the rates in other large countries such as China (90%), Russia (89%) Mexico (80%), or Brazil (73%).

Homelessness significantly reduces student graduation and retention. From 2019 to 2020, approximately 1.3 million students in public schools in the United States experienced homelessness.

The term "affordable housing" refers to housing that is considered economically accessible for individuals and families whose household income falls at or below the Area Median Income (AMI), as evaluated by either national or local government authorities through an officially recognized housing affordability index. However, in the US, the term is mostly used to refer to housing units that are deed restricted to households considered Low-Income, Very Low-Income, and Extremely Low-Income. These units are most often constructed by non-profit "affordable housing developers" who use a combination of private money and government subsidies. For-profit developers, when building market-rate developments, may include some "affordable" units, if required as part of a city's inclusionary zoning mandate.

References

  1. ↑ Johnson A, Meckstroth A (June 22, 1998). Ancillary services to support welfare to work (Report). Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services. pp. 20–23.
  2. ↑ "Home insurance rates are rising due to climate change. What could break that cycle?". NPR. July 23, 2024.
  3. ↑ Becker, William S. (2024-07-22). "Opinion: Climate inflation is eating your paycheck — and it's only going to get worse". The Hill. Retrieved 2024-07-24.
  4. 1 2 Romero, Ezra David (July 28, 2021). "Reporters must center climate justice. Here's how". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved 2024-08-16. I already knew well that the poor, communities of color, and Indigenous groups are likely to suffer first and worst from the drivers and impacts of climate change—from displacement to housing insecurity to air pollution and its public-health risks.
  5. 1 2 Bakshi, Nisarg (April 28, 2023). "New report details alarming health impact of climate change on children". ABC News. Retrieved 2024-08-16. A new report released this week by the Environmental Protection Agency projects the devastating health impact of climate change on children. Effects include higher rates of respiratory disease, reduced academic achievement, higher rates of infections and risk of housing insecurity in coastal cities.
  6. ↑ Cox R, Rodnyansky S, Henwood B, Wenzel S (December 2017). "Measuring Population Estimates of Housing Insecurity in the United States: A Comprehensive Approach". USC Center for Economic and Social Research: 14–16.
  7. ↑ Cutts DB, Meyers AF, Black MM, Casey PH, Chilton M, Cook JT, Geppert J, Ettinger de Cuba S, Heeren T, Coleman S, Rose-Jacobs R, Frank DA (August 2011). "US Housing insecurity and the health of very young children". American Journal of Public Health. 101 (8): 1508–14. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300139. PMC   3134514 . PMID   21680929.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Stahre M, VanEenwyk J, Siegel P, Njai R (July 2015). "Housing Insecurity and the Association With Health Outcomes and Unhealthy Behaviors, Washington State, 2011". Preventing Chronic Disease. 12: E109. doi:10.5888/pcd12.140511. PMC   4509099 . PMID   26160295.
  9. 1 2 Eggers FJ, Moumen F (March 2013). "American Housing survey: Housing Adequacy and Quality As Measured by the AHS" (PDF). U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research.
  10. ↑ Desmond, Matthew (March 9, 2023). "Why Poverty Persists in America". The New York Times. New York Times.
  11. ↑ "How finding a home in America became so absurdly expensive". The Guardian. May 2023.
  12. 1 2 Cox R, Rodnyansky S, Henwood B, Wenzel S (December 2017). "Measuring Population Estimates of Housing Insecurity in the United States: A Comprehensive Approach". USC Center for Economic and Social Research: 14–16.
  13. ↑ "Comprehensive housing & apartment security solutions in the United States". Chicago Security Systems. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
  14. 1 2 "Fact Sheet No. 21, The Human Right to Adequate Housing". UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). November 2009.
  15. 1 2 "HUD Modifies Extremely-Low Income Definition - NH&RA". NH&RA. 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  16. 1 2 "Enterprise". www.housinginsecurity.org. Retrieved 2018-03-17.
  17. ↑ Bourassa, Steven C. (March 2008). "Review: Subprime Mortgages: America's Latest Boom and Bust, by Edward M. Gramlich. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. 2007. 108 pages. $26.50 (paperback). Chasing the American Dream: New Perspectives on Affordable Homeownership, edited by William M. Rohe and Harry L. Watson. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 2007. 315 pages. $24.95 (paperback). America's Rental Housing: Homes for a Diverse Nation, by the Joint Center for Housing Studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. 2006. 32 pages. Available in PDF at www.jchs.harvard.edu. The State of the Nation's Housing 2007, by the Joint Center for Housing Studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. 2007. 40 pages. Available in PDF at www.jchs.harvard.edu". Journal of Planning Education and Research. 27 (3): 372–374. doi:10.1177/0739456x07312607. ISSN   0739-456X.
  18. ↑ Rose, Carol M. (1981). "Preservation and Community: New Directions in the Law of Historic Preservation". Stanford Law Review. 33 (3): 473–534. doi:10.2307/1228356. ISSN   0038-9765. JSTOR   1228356.
  19. ↑ Ma, Christine T.; Gee, Lauren; Kushel, Margot B. (2008-01-01). "Associations Between Housing Instability and Food Insecurity With Health Care Access in Low-Income Children". Ambulatory Pediatrics. 8 (1): 50–57. doi:10.1016/j.ambp.2007.08.004. ISSN   1530-1567. PMID   18191782.
  20. ↑ Rollins, Chiquita; Glass, Nancy E.; Perrin, Nancy A.; Billhardt, Kris A.; Clough, Amber; Barnes, Jamie; Hanson, Ginger C.; Bloom, Tina L. (2012-03-01). "Housing Instability Is as Strong a Predictor of Poor Health Outcomes as Level of Danger in an Abusive Relationship: Findings From the SHARE Study". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 27 (4): 623–643. doi:10.1177/0886260511423241. ISSN   0886-2605. PMID   21987519. S2CID   27929042.
  21. ↑ Obradović, Jelena; Long, Jeffrey D.; Cutuli, J. J.; Chan, Chi-Keung; Hinz, Elizabeth; Heistad, David; Masten, Ann S. (May 2009). "Academic achievement of homeless and highly mobile children in an urban school district: Longitudinal evidence on risk, growth, and resilience". Development and Psychopathology. 21 (2): 493–518. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000273. ISSN   1469-2198. PMID   19338695. S2CID   13069603.
  22. ↑ Obradović J, Long JD, Cutuli JJ, Chan CK, Hinz E, Heistad D, Masten AS (May 2009). "Academic achievement of homeless and highly mobile children in an urban school district: longitudinal evidence on risk, growth, and resilience". Development and Psychopathology. 21 (2): 493–518. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000273. PMID   19338695. S2CID   13069603.
  23. ↑ Cutuli JJ, Desjardins CD, Herbers JE, Long JD, Heistad D, Chan CK, Hinz E, Masten AS (2013-05-01). "Academic achievement trajectories of homeless and highly mobile students: resilience in the context of chronic and acute risk". Child Development. 84 (3): 841–57. doi:10.1111/cdev.12013. PMC   3566371 . PMID   23110492.
  24. ↑ "HUD.gov / U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)". www.hud.gov. 20 September 2017. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  25. ↑ "About Us". National Low Income Housing Coalition. 2011-12-02. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  26. ↑ "Enterprise 2020 Strategic Plan". March 28, 2014. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
  27. ↑ "Whatever Happened to the Starter Home?". The New York Times. 25 September 2022.
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