Huntite

Last updated
Huntite
Huntita de Montcada.jpg
General
Category Carbonate mineral
Formula
(repeating unit)		Mg3Ca(CO3)4
IMA symbol Hun [1]
Strunz classification 5.AB.25
Dana classification14.04.03.01
Crystal system Trigonal
Crystal class Trapezohedral (32)
H-M symbol: (3 2)
Space group R32
Unit cell a = 9.505 Å, c = 7.821 Å; Z = 3
Identification
Formula mass 353 g/mol
ColorWhite, lemon white
Crystal habit Platy crystals; compact chalklike masses
Fracture Subconchoidal
Tenacity Brittle
Mohs scale hardness1–2
Luster Earthy (dull)
Streak White
Diaphaneity Translucent
Specific gravity 2.696
Optical propertiesUniaxial (–)
Refractive index nω = 1.622 nε = 1.615
References [2] [3] [4]

Huntite is a carbonate mineral with the chemical formula Mg3Ca(CO3)4. [4] Huntite crystallizes in the trigonal system and typically occurs as platy crystals and powdery masses. For most of recorded history its main use was as a white pigment. [5] [6] Today the most common industrial use of huntite is as a natural mixture with hydromagnesite as a flame retardant or fire retardant additive for polymers.

Contents

Discovery

In 1953 a paper by George Faust [7] announced the discovery of a new carbonate mineral found in Currant Creek, Nevada (US). Faust acknowledged that the mineral probably had been discovered previously, but it had been misidentified as impure magnesite by W. E. Ford in 1917. Faust named the new mineral "huntite" in honour of his former teacher, Walter Frederick Hunt (1882–1975), [8] Professor of Petrology at the University of Michigan. [9] Faust carried out analyses of the mineral, and found amongst others that in differential thermal analysis huntite showed two endothermic peaks, which could be attributed to the dissociation of MgCO3 and CaCO3 respectively. Chemical analyses showed huntite to consist of Mg3Ca(CO3)4.

Properties

Huntite often occurs in combination with other Mg/Ca carbonates such as dolomite, magnesite, and hydromagnesite. Large deposits of huntite occur in Turkey and Greece and these are commercially exploited because of its fire retardant properties. Huntite thermally decomposes over a temperature range of about 450–800 °C, releasing carbon dioxide and leaving a residue of magnesium and calcium oxides. [10] [11] [12]

Occurrences

Huntite has been found in a variety of environments. For example, it occurs in the modern carbonate sediments of the tidal flats bordering the Persian Gulf, [13] in seasonal salt lakes of Turkey, [14] [15] [16] [17] in various playa lakes of British Columbia (Canada), [18] in lacustrine deposits of Greece [19] and in modern sabkha sediments in Tunisia. [20] [21]

Caves seem to be well suited for the low-temperature formation of huntite. For example, it has been reported from the caves of the Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico (US); [22] [23] [24] in the Castleguard Cave (Alberta, Canada); [25] in the Grotte de Clamouse, France; [26] [27] in various caves of the Transvaal Province of South Africa; [28] in Clearwater Cave, Mulu, Sarawak [29] in the Jenolan Caves, Australia; [30] and in the Castañar Cave near Cáceres, Spain. [31] [32]

Syntheses

In 1962, huntite was first synthesized by Biedl and Preisinger in experiments conducted at 100 °C and 3.2 bar CO2 pressure. [33]

In 1983 Oomori et al. claimed laboratory synthesis of huntite at 33 °C when adding a sodium carbonate solution to concentrated sea water saturated with calcium bicarbonate. [34] In 2006, Zaitseva et al. noted the precipitation of huntite at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. In laboratory experiments originally intended to synthesize magnesium calcite, they had added cultures of Microcoleus chtonoplastes (cyanobacteria) to sea water brine. After 10 months of continuously shaking the samples they found huntite, magnesite, and aragonite. [35] In 2012, Hopkinson et al. synthesized the mineral at 52 °C by reacting magnesium calcite with nesquehonite (MgCO3·3H2O). [36]

Genesis

Huntite, dolomite and magnesite appear to be so very closely related, that a genetic relationship seems to be implied. [37] In a number of instances all three carbonates are found in close association; for example Faust (1953) described huntite occurring together with dolomite and magnesite (amongst other minerals); Carpenter (1961) [38] found huntite associated with aragonite, magnesium calcite and dolomite; Larrabee (1969) [39] reported on huntite together with (amongst many others) aragonite, calcite, dolomite and magnesite in serpentinite on a weathered dunite rock. A weathered basalt in Australia was found to contain huntite in association with magnesite (Cole & Lancucki, 1975 [40] ). Huntite together with magnesite was found by Calvo et al. (1995) [41] in lake sediments of Northern Greece. Huntite in combination with magnesite occurs in a weathered serpentinite near Hrubšice, Czech Republic according to Němec (1981) [42] According to the mineral and locations database of "mindat.org" huntite, together with aragonite, calcite, dolomite and magnesite can be found in the "U Pustého Mlýna" quarry near Hrubšice, Czech Republic. [3]

Industrial use

The most common industrial use of huntite is as a natural mixture with hydromagnesite as a flame retardant or fire retardant additive for polymers. [43] [44] [45] The heat of a fire will cause huntite to decompose releasing carbon dioxide into the flames. This helps to slow the spread of the fire. The release of carbon dioxide is endothermic, meaning that it takes in heat, this action helps to cool the burning material, again slowing the spread of the fire. These types of mixtures are used as alternatives to the more commonly used aluminium hydroxide.

Conite

A mineral with exactly the same composition as that of huntite has been known for more than 200 years; in 1812 for example, John [46] and Stromeyer [47] described it as having a chemical composition of CaCO3 : MgCO3 = 1 : 3. In those days the mineral was known as conite (in German: Konit); a name given to it by Retzius (1798). [48] However, a serious problem concerns the exact location where the mineral conite can be found. Originally Retzius had found the new carbonate in a mineral collection, and had recognized it as a new species because it was harder than any of the known carbonates (even so hard, that it would spark when struck with steel) but no indication was given as to the site where this conite had been found. [48] A number of papers describing conite are known, without the exact location where it can be found. In 1804, Ludwig stated that the sample of conite studied by him, came "from Iceland". [49] In 1805 Leonhard wrote that the conite he had analyzed, came "from Scandinavia". [50] Somewhat more exact was Stromeyer in 1812, who claimed that his sample of conite had been found near the village of Frankenhayn, on the eastern slope of the Hoher Meissner near Kassel, Germany. However, this conite had been found there as a loose boulder, and no outcrop of the new mineral was mentioned. In 1833 Blum summed up how conite could be found in mines near Freiberg (Germany), as boulders on the slopes of Mount Meissner (Germany) and on Iceland. [51] In 1849, Hirzel repeated that conite could be found on the eastern slope of Mount Meissner, [52] and in 1882 Schrauf reported the mineral from the magnesite deposits on the borders of the Schöninger Bach at Křemže near Budweis, Czech Republic. [53] Because of the absence of a type locality for the mineral conite, a historical priority of its description over that of huntite cannot be claimed.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limestone</span> Type of sedimentary rock

Limestone is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of CaCO3. Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as the accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for the last 540 million years. Limestone often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the evolution of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calcite</span> Calcium carbonate mineral

Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is a very common mineral, particularly as a component of limestone. Calcite defines hardness 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison. Large calcite crystals are used in optical equipment, and limestone composed mostly of calcite has numerous uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolomite (mineral)</span> Carbonate mineral - CaMg(CO₃)₂

Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate, ideally CaMg(CO3)2. The term is also used for a sedimentary carbonate rock composed mostly of the mineral dolomite (see Dolomite (rock)). An alternative name sometimes used for the dolomitic rock type is dolostone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aragonite</span> Calcium carbonate mineral

Aragonite is a carbonate mineral and one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, the others being calcite and vaterite. It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnesium hydroxide</span> Inorganic compound of formula Mg(OH)2

Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. It occurs in nature as the mineral brucite. It is a white solid with low solubility in water (Ksp = 5.61×10−12). Magnesium hydroxide is a common component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brucite</span> Magnesium hydroxide mineral

Brucite is the mineral form of magnesium hydroxide, with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. It is a common alteration product of periclase in marble; a low-temperature hydrothermal vein mineral in metamorphosed limestones and chlorite schists; and formed during serpentinization of dunites. Brucite is often found in association with serpentine, calcite, aragonite, dolomite, magnesite, hydromagnesite, artinite, talc and chrysotile.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnesium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, is an inorganic salt that is a colourless or white solid. Several hydrated and basic forms of magnesium carbonate also exist as minerals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Speleothem</span> Structure formed in a cave by the deposition of minerals from water

A speleothem is a geological formation by mineral deposits that accumulate over time in natural caves. Speleothems most commonly form in calcareous caves due to carbonate dissolution reactions. They can take a variety of forms, depending on their depositional history and environment. Their chemical composition, gradual growth, and preservation in caves make them useful paleoclimatic proxies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnesite</span> Type of mineral

Magnesite is a mineral with the chemical formula MgCO
3. Iron, manganese, cobalt, and nickel may occur as admixtures, but only in small amounts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dolomite (rock)</span> Sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite

Dolomite (also known as dolomite rock, dolostone or dolomitic rock) is a sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2. It occurs widely, often in association with limestone and evaporites, though it is less abundant than limestone and rare in Cenozoic rock beds (beds less than about 66 million years in age). The first geologist to distinguish dolomite from limestone was Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu; a French mineralogist and geologist whom it is named after. He recognized and described the distinct characteristics of dolomite in the late 18th century, differentiating it from limestone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artinite</span> Hydrated basic magnesium carbonate mineral

Artinite is a hydrated basic magnesium carbonate mineral with formula: Mg2(CO3)(OH)2·3H2O. It forms white silky monoclinic prismatic crystals that are often in radial arrays or encrustations. It has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 and a specific gravity of 2.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barytocalcite</span>

Barytocalcite is an anhydrous barium calcium carbonate mineral with the chemical formula BaCa(CO3)2. It is trimorphous with alstonite and paralstonite, that is to say the three minerals have the same formula but different structures. Baryte and quartz pseudomorphs after barytocalcite have been observed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbonate rock</span> Class of sedimentary rock

Carbonate rocks are a class of sedimentary rocks composed primarily of carbonate minerals. The two major types are limestone, which is composed of calcite or aragonite (different crystal forms of CaCO3), and dolomite rock (also known as dolostone), which is composed of mineral dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). They are usually classified based on texture and grain size. Importantly, carbonate rocks can exist as metamorphic and igneous rocks, too. When recrystallized carbonate rocks are metamorphosed, marble is created. Rare igneous carbonate rocks even exist as intrusive carbonatites and, even rarer, there exists volcanic carbonate lava.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydromagnesite</span> Hydrated hydroxy-carbonate mineral of magnesium

Hydromagnesite is a hydrated magnesium carbonate mineral with the formula Mg5(CO3)4(OH)2·4H2O.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbonate mineral</span> Minerals containing the carbonate ion

Carbonate minerals are those minerals containing the carbonate ion, CO2−
3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anthodite</span> Speleothems composed of long needle-like crystals situated in clusters

Anthodites (Greek ἄνθος ánthos, "flower", -ode, adjectival combining form, -ite adjectival suffix) are speleothems (cave formations) composed of long needle-like crystals situated in clusters which radiate outward from a common base. The "needles" may be quill-like or feathery. Most anthodites are made of the mineral aragonite (a variety of calcium carbonate, CaCO3), although some are composed of gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kutnohorite</span> Mineral of calcium manganese carbonate

Kutnohorite is a rare calcium manganese carbonate mineral with magnesium and iron that is a member of the dolomite group. It forms a series with dolomite, and with ankerite. The end member formula is CaMn2+(CO3)2, but Mg2+ and Fe2+ commonly substitute for Mn2+, with the manganese content varying from 38% to 84%, so the formula Ca(Mn2+,Mg,Fe2+)(CO3)2 better represents the species. It was named by Professor Bukowsky in 1901 after the type locality of Kutná Hora, Bohemia, in the Czech Republic. It was originally spelt "kutnahorite" but "kutnohorite" is the current IMA-approved spelling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monohydrocalcite</span>

Monohydrocalcite is a mineral that is a hydrous form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3·H2O. It was formerly also known by the name hydrocalcite, which is now discredited by the IMA. It is a trigonal mineral which is white when pure. Monohydrocalcite is not a common rock-forming mineral, but is frequently associated with other calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals, such as calcite, aragonite, lansfordite, and nesquehonite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benstonite</span> Ba,Ca,Mg-mixed carbonate mineral

Benstonite is a mineral with formula Ba6Ca6Mg(CO3)13. Discovered in 1954, the mineral was described in 1961 and named after Orlando J. Benston (1901–1966).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Talmessite</span>

Talmessite is a hydrated calcium magnesium arsenate, often with significant amounts of cobalt or nickel. It was named in 1960 for the type locality, the Talmessi mine, Anarak district, Iran. It forms a series with β-Roselite, where cobalt replaces some of the magnesium, and with gaitite, where zinc replaces the magnesium. All these minerals are members of the fairfieldite group. Talmessite is dimorphic with wendwilsonite.

References

  1. ↑ Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi: 10.1180/mgm.2021.43 . S2CID   235729616.
  2. ↑ Handbook of Mineralogy: Huntite
  3. 1 2 Huntite on Mindat.org
  4. 1 2 Huntite on Webmineral
  5. ↑ John Clarke, "Two Aboriginal Rock Art Pigments from Western Australia: Their Properties, Use, and Durability." Studies in Conservation, Volume 21, Issue 3 (1976) pp. 134–142 https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.1976.023
  6. ↑ Richard Parkinson, The Painted Tomb-Chapel of Nebamun: Masterpiece of Ancient Egyptian Art in the British Museum (The British Museum Press: London, 2008) page 50
  7. ↑ Faust, GT (1953). "Huntite A New Mineral". American Mineralogist. 38: 4–24.
  8. ↑ Kraus, E.H., American Mineralogist, v. 38, Jan–Feb, 1953
  9. ↑ Ramsdell, LS (1958). "Presentation of the Roebling Medal to Walter F Hunt". American Mineralogist. 43: 334–335.
  10. ↑ Ozao, R; Otsuka, R. (1985). "Thermoanalytical Investigation of Huntite". Thermochimica Acta. 86: 45–58. doi:10.1016/0040-6031(85)87032-5.
  11. ↑ Hollingbery, LA; Hull TR (2010). "The Thermal Decomposition of Huntite and Hydromagnesite - A Review". Thermochimica Acta. 509 (1–2): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2010.06.012.
  12. ↑ Hollingbery, LA; Hull TR (2012). "The Thermal Decomposition of Natural Mixtures of Huntite and Hydromagnesite". Thermochimica Acta. 528: 45–52. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2011.11.002.
  13. ↑ Kinsman, D. J. J. (1967): Huntite from a carbonate – evaporite environment. American Mineralogist, vol. 52, pp. 1332–1340.
  14. ↑ Irion, G. & Müller, G. (1968): Huntite, dolomite, magnesite and polyhalite of Recent age from Tuz Gölü, Turkey. Nature, vol. 220, pp. 1309–1310.
  15. ↑ Irion, G. (1970): Mineralogisch-sedimentpetrographische und geochemische Untersuchungen am Tuz Gölü (Salzsee). Chemie der Erde, vol.29, pp. 163–226.
  16. ↑ Camur, M. Z. & Mutlu, H. (1996): Major-ion geochemistry and mineralogy of the Salt-Lake (Tuz Gölü) basin, Turkey. Chemical Geology, vol.127, pp. 313–329.
  17. ↑ Mutlu, H.; Kadir, S. & Akbulut, A. (1999): Mineralogy and water chemistry of the Lake Acigöl, Denizli, Turkey. Carbonates and Evaporites, vol. 14, pp. 191–199.
  18. ↑ Renaut, R. W. (1990): Recent carbonate sedimentation and brine evolution in the saline lake basins of the Cariboo Plateau, British Columbia, Canada. pp. 67–81, in: Comin, F. A. & Northcote, T. G. (eds.): Saline Lakes. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
  19. ↑ Wetzenstein, W. (1974): Sedimentpetrographische Untersuchungen an limnischen Magnesit – Huntitlagerstätten im Plio-Pleistozän des Serviabeckens / Nordgriechenland. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte, 1974, pp. 625–642.
  20. ↑ Perthuisot, J. P. (1971): Présence de magnésite et de huntite dans le sebkha el Melah de Zarzis. Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, Série D, vol. 272, pp. 185–188.
  21. ↑ Perthuisot, J. P. (1974): Les dépôts salins de la sebkha El Melah de Zarzis: Conditions et modalités de la sédimentation évaporitique. Revue de la geographie physique et de géologie dynamique, vol. 16, pp. 177–187.
  22. ↑ Thrailkill, J. (1971): Carbonate deposition in Carlsbad caverns. Journal of Geology, vol. 79, pp. 683–695.
  23. ↑ Hill, C. A. (1973): Huntite flowstone in Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico. Science, vol. 181, pp. 158–159.
  24. ↑ Gonzalez, L. A. & Lohmann, K. C. (1988): Controls on mineralogy and composition of spelean carbonates: Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico. pp. 81–101, in: James, N. P. & Choquette, P. W. (eds.): Paleokarst. Springer, New York, 416 p.
  25. ↑ Harmon, R. S.; Atkinson, T. C. & Atkinson, J. L. (1983): The Mineralogy of Castleguard Cave, Columbia Icefields, Alberta, Canada]. Arctic and Alpine Research, vol. 15, pp. 503–522.
  26. ↑ Baron, G.; Caillère, S.; Lagrange, R. & Pobeguin, T. (1957): Sur la présence de huntite dans une grotte de l'Hérault (la Clamouse). Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences (Paris), vol. 245, pp. 92–94.
  27. ↑ Fischbeck, R. (1976): Mineralogie und Geochemie carbonatischer Ablagerungen in europäischen Höhlen – ein Beitrag zur Bildung und Diagenese von Speleothemen. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Abhandlungen, vol. 126, pp. 269–291.
  28. ↑ Martini, J. & Kavalieris, I. (1978): Mineralogy of the Transvaal caves. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, vol. 81, pp. 47–54.
  29. ↑ Laverty, M. (1982): Cave Minerals in the Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Cave Science 9(2), p. 130
  30. ↑ Pogson, R. E.; Osborne, R. E. & Colchester, D. M. (2001): Minerals of the Jenolan Caves – geosphere meets biosphere. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, vol. 134, p. 111.
  31. ↑ Alonso-Zarza, A. M.; Martín-Pérez, A.; Gil-Peña, I.; Martínez-Flores, E. & Muñoz-Barco, P. (2005): Formacíon de dolomita y huntita en depósitos de moon-milk en la Cueva de Castañar de Ibo (Cáceras). Geogaceta, July 2005, no. 38, pp. 247–250.
  32. ↑ Alonso-Zarza, A. M. & Martín-Pérez, A. (2008): Dolomite in caves: Recent dolomite formation in oxic, non-sulfate environments, Castañar Cave, Spain. Sedimentary Geology, vol. 205, pp. 160–164.
  33. ↑ Biedl, A. & Preisinger, A. (1962): Synthese von Huntit, Mg3Ca(CO3)4. Anzeiger der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse, Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Wien), 1962, No.10, pp.148–149.
  34. ↑ Oomori, T.; Kaneshima, K.; Taira, T. & Kitano, Y. (1983): Synthetic studies of protodolomite from brine waters. Geochemical Journal, vol.17, pp.147–152.
  35. ↑ Zaitseva, L. V.; Orleanskii, V. K.; Gerasimenko, M. & Ushatinskaya, G. T. (2006): The role of cyanobacteria in crystallization of magnesium calcites. Paleontological Journal, vol.40, pp.125–133.
  36. ↑ Hopkinson, L.; Kristova, P.; Rutt, K. & Cressey, G. (2012): Phase transitions in the system MgO – CO2 – H2O during CO2 degassing of Mg-bearing solutions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol.76, pp.1–13.
  37. ↑ Müller, G.; Irion, G. & Förstner, U. (1972): Formation and diagenesis of inorganic Ca-Mg carbonates in the lacustrine environment. Die Naturwissenschaften, vol.59, pp.158–164.
  38. ↑ Carpenter, A. B. (1961): Mineral assemblage magnesium calcite – aragonite – huntite at Crestmore, California. Geological Society of America, Abstracts for 1961, p.146.
  39. ↑ Larrabee, D. M. (1969) Serpentinite and rodingite in the Hunting Hill Quarry, Montgomery County, Maryland. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, no.1283, 34 p.
  40. ↑ Cole, W. F. & Lancucki, C. J. (1975): Huntite, from Deer Park, Victoria, Australia. American Mineralogist, vol.60, pp.1130–1131.
  41. ↑ Calvo, J. P.; Stamatakis, M. G. & Magganas, A. C. (1955): Clastic huntite in Upper Neogene formations of the Kozani Basin, Macedonia, Northern Greece. Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol.A65, pp.627–632.
  42. ↑ Němec, D. (1981): Huntit ze serpentinitové oblasti u Hrubšic na západni Moravě (Huntite from the serpentinite area at Hrubšice, Western Moravia – English summary). Časopis pro mineralogii a geologii, vol.26, pp.75–78.
  43. ↑ Hollingbery, LA; Hull TR (2010). "The Fire Retardant Behaviour of Huntite and Hydromagnesite – A Review". Polymer Degradation and Stability. 95 (12): 2213–2225. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.08.019.
  44. ↑ Hollingbery, LA; Hull TR (2012). "The Fire Retardant Effects of Huntite in Natural Mixtures with Hydromagnesite". Polymer Degradation and Stability. 97 (4): 504–512. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.01.024.
  45. ↑ Hull, TR; Witkowski A; Hollingbery LA (2011). "Fire Retardant Action of Mineral Fillers". Polymer Degradation and Stability. 96 (8): 1462–1469. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2011.05.006. S2CID   96208830.
  46. ↑ John, D. (1812): Chemische Analyse des Conits aus der Gegend des Meisseners. Journal für Chemie und Physik, vol.5, pp.13–18.
  47. ↑ Stromeyer, F. (1812): Analyse des sogenannten Konits vom Meissner. Annalen der Physik, vol.41, pp.336–338.
  48. 1 2 Retzius, A. J. (1798): Versuch einer Aufstellung des Mineralreiches. S. L. Crusius, Leipzig, 376 p.
  49. ↑ Ludwig, C. F. (1804): Handbuch der Mineralogie nach A. G. Werner. S. L. Crusius, Leipzig, Theil 2 = 226 p.
  50. ↑ Leonhard, C. C. (1805): Handbuch einer allgemeinen topographischen Mineralogie. J. C. Hermann,Frankfurt, vol.1 = 479 p.
  51. ↑ Blum, J. R. (1833): Lehrbuch der Oryktognosie. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, 509 p.
  52. ↑ Hirzel, H. (1849): Analyse des Konits von Frankenheyn am östlichen Abhange des Meissners. Archiv der Pharmacie, vol.109, pp.154–156.
  53. ↑ Schrauf, A. (1882): Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Associationskreises des Magnesiasilicate. Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie , vol.6, pp.321–388.
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