Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 is a 1982 book written by Barbara D. Metcalf.[1] This monograph provides the first major study of the institutional and intellectual history of the Deobandi movement, focusing on its formative phase. It examines the transformative responses of Islamic scholars to the challenges faced by Indian Islam following the Rebellion of 1857.[2][3]
The book analyzes 18th-century Islamic reform movements, then details the establishment, administration, finances, and educational practices of the Darul Uloom Deobandseminary. It examines various religious leadership roles and the social context of Deobandi scholars. Additionally, it contrasts Deoband with other Sunni Islamic movements, including the Ahl-i Hadith, Barelwis, Nadwatul Ulama, and Aligarh movement, highlighting Deoband's unique historical position and characteristics within Indian Muslim intellectual history.[4]
Content
The initial chapters investigate the historical context of the Deobandi movement, examining the role of Indian Islamic scholars in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It highlights the scholars' growing significance after the decline of the Mughal state, contrasting developments in northern India's Muslim culture centers. The emphasis on ma'qunut in the Dars-i Nizami at the Firangi Mahal in Lucknow is contrasted with Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and his dynasty's focus on Hadith in Delhi.[5]
The core section details the founding of the Darul Uloom Deoband in 1867 following the destruction of Delhi. It presents sympathetic portraits of the Deobandi movement's founders, Qasim Nanawtawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, drawn from their writings and Urdu biographies.
Institutionally, Darul Uloom's networks and donors draw inspiration from the West, influenced by founders' experiences at Delhi College. The deliberate rejection of traditional ties for broader linkages aligns the Deobandis with a trend in nineteenth-century Indian Islam toward institutional and ideological rationalization. This shift is evident in discussions about attempts to subordinate the seminary to local interests as well as the character of religious teachings at Deoband, emphasizing Hadith and Hanafi law complemented by Sufi spirituality without Pir worship.[5]
The roles of leading Deobandi 'ulama' as educators, issuers of fatawa, and participants in religious disputes are examined. Their impact as writers in developing Urdu as the primary language of Indian Islam is noted, particularly Ashraf Ali Thanwi's Bahishti Zewar. The ulama's social background is analyzed based on annual reports, dispelling common misconceptions about their status as part of the ashraf.[6]
The final chapters focus on contemporary conflicts between the Deobandis and other movements within Indian Islam, such as the Ahl-i Hadith, Barelvi 'Ulama', Aligarh movement, and Nadwatul 'Ulama'.[6]
Theme
According to Francis Robinson, the essence of the entire book lies in recognizing the existence of an Islamic reality.[7] Particularly notable is the investigation into the varied responses of northern Indian ulama to the decline of Muslims and the dominance of the British. This exploration sheds new light on groups such as the Barelwis, Ahl-i-Hadiths, Nadwatul Ulama, and the Deoband school.[7] Metcalf's also emphaszies the vibrancy of 18th and 19th-century Indian Islam, exposing the emergence of innovative religious forms.[8]
The work focuses on the reasons for the success of the Deobandi way, while also discussing the vulgarization of Islamic learning by 19th-century Indian ulama.[9][10] Amedeo Maiello observes a shift in focus from modernist advocates in previous studies to Metcalf's emphasis on the response of Islamic scholars to the social and cultural disorientation of their time. This shift highlights the intricate nature of the Indian Muslim pattern of reform.[11] Also emphasized is the crucial moderating role played by Islamic scholars in updating the inherited tradition.[11] Another consideration is the extent to which Sufi doctrine and practice has influenced Deoband.[12]
Reception
The book received mostly positive reviews, with some critical opinions. Gowher Rizvi underscores its contribution beyond simplistic categorizations, considering participants' perspectives and beliefs for a more profound exploration,[13] while Christopher Shackle, Yohanan Friedmann, and Amedeo Maiello emphasized the importance of the book to the study of modern Indian Islam.[14][15][16] There was also praise for Metcalf's use of Darul Uloom's annual reports as a major source.[14] However, Annemarie Schimmel, while acknowledging the social science approach, criticizes the author's lack of knowledge in classical Islamic languages and the tradition of Islamic education, pointing out a potential limitation in the book's scope.[17]
Legacy
In 2002, Muhammad Qasim Zaman published The Ulama in Contemporary Islam which built upon themes explored in Islamic Revival in British India. While Metcalf delves into the origins of the Deobandi movement, Zaman scrutinizes their approach in strategizing, articulating, contesting, and safeguarding their religious authority through a range of discursive and non-discursive means.[18][19]
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