Languages Other Than English

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LOTE or Languages Other Than English is the name given to language subjects besides English in Australia, New York City, and other[ vague ] schools. The name evolved from 'heritage language', a term first used to refer to languages other than French and English in Canada. Later modified in relation to Australia to refer to languages other than English. [1] LOTEs have often historically been related to the policy of multiculturalism, and tend to reflect the predominant non-English languages spoken in a school's local area, the idea being to play a part in the maintenance of cultural identities in local communities.[ citation needed ]

Contents

LOTE is also used to describe written material presented in languages other than English. [2]

Heritage Languages

LOTE Acquisition

Children at School Children at school (8720604364).jpg
Children at School

The home environment plays a significant role for acquisition of multilingualism in early childhood development. [3] In a study, researchers found a positive relationship between parents who valued and spent time developing their child's literacy skills and their child's language proficiency. [4] Parents who expose their child to libraries, picture books, reading aloud, storytelling, playing games, and rhymes improved literary and language skills. [4] Such environmental factors impact progression of home languages. [4] Lexical development, the changes in vocabulary over childhood, is a key area for bilingualism. [5] Lexical acquisition holds two major components: the amount and context of language input and the application of this input. [5]

LOTE Maintenance

The maintenance of a second, minority language is greatly impacted by parental language input patterns at home. [6] [7] Often, children in bilingual circumstances will prioritize the majority language, English in this case, while the minority language varies according to households. [7] One study suggest that the likelihood of bilingual maintenance can be increased if the majority language is restricted at home. [7] This could come in the form of one parent speaking one language. This would improve the minority language input. [7] Another study found that the female caregiver has the most influence on a child's communication at home. [6] They saw that if the female primarily used a LOTE, then the child's minority language proficiency was greater. [6]

The maintenance of a home language is significant to some ethnic families as a form of cultural identity continuation and intergenerational family relationships, especially with grandparents. [8] Maintenance of a LOTE is perceived to also provide greater economic opportunities in the future. [9] However, home language maintenance and loss are quite dependent on family context. Another research found that many parents were worried that bilingualism would confuse their child. [10] For example, a bilingual child may intermix majority and minority languages to form sentences. This has been subjected to differing opinions. One side argues that language confusion causes language delay, whereas the opposing view suggest that code-switching, the intermixture of two languages, is an indication of mastery of the two languages. [11] [12]

Australian Passport Australian Passport and Travel Documents (P Series).jpg
Australian Passport

A literature review found another parental motivation for teaching a minority language is for their child to be a language broker. [13] Language brokers are children who translate and interpret the majority language for their families. [13] This typically occurs when parents do not understand the dominant language. [13] The language brokers skills are typically utilized for official documentations, such as government forms, bank statements, applications, and insurance. [14] In one study the brokers outperformed native English speakers as their literacy exposure was beyond a typical school setting. [14] The study concluded that the unique role has shown greater cognition and problem-solving abilities as the language broker would reason at an adult-level real-world context. [14] These situations naturally improved the broker's skills in developing literacy as children as young as 12 years old were translating linguistically challenging official documents and meditating conversations. [13] This role places greater responsibility on the child which potentially helps them mature more quickly as they interact in more adult situations. [15] Language brokers often can help bridge the cultural gaps between their family and the new community. [15]

Social and educational environments also contribute to language maintenance or loss. [9] One study found that the use of minority languages typically declines; however, the minority language, Spanish in this instance, improved when a teacher taught bilingually, despite minimal knowledge of Spanish. [16] Students would typically converse in Spanish for non-academic conversations and smaller group settings. [16] The study concluded that sociolinguistic environments strongly maintain and develop native languages. [16] In a separate study, children who attended bilingual preschools had greater language proficiency in English and Spanish, their minority language. [17] It suggests that learning English does not hinder the development of a child's native language. [17] Another study found a positive correlation between tight family cohesion and a child's use of their native language. [18]

LOTE Loss

The child's decision to speak a LOTE is a significant factor to the loss of a minority language. [9] For instance, some children internally desire relationships outside of the family. Consequently, English would be primarily used to integrate into society. One study found that children with siblings would often speak English over a LOTE language in conversation. [19]

External influences also influence the continuation and loss of LOTE. [20] For instance, an external force might be schools teaching English as a mandatory subject. Consequently, families may transition to speaking English at home to prepare a child for the dominant language at childcare centres and school. [21] Furthermore, one study found that teachers who did not receive training for heritage languages were more likely to have indifferent or negative attitudes towards LOTE maintenance. [22] They saw that the responsibility of LOTE was for language teachers. [22] The study concluded that all educators need to understand the significance of LOTE for students. [22]

The loss of LOTE can form greater communication barriers between second-third generation children and their grandparents. [9] One study found that the language transition to English is occurring much more quickly as a LOTE can be loss within a generation. [23] This can negatively impact one's sense of heritage, cultural and familial belonging. [20]

LOTE in Australia

Australia's LOTE Context.

While Australia has no official national language English is spoken by the majority of the population, with 72.7% speaking it at home in 2016. [24] The Australian government encourages migrants to learn English in order to integrate into society. [25] English is also the primary language used in Australian schools.

Despite this Australia holds more than 270 ancestries. [26] Australia's cultural diversity lies in its high first-second generation population. In 2016, 67% of Australians were born in Australia while 49% were born overseas, or one or both parents were born overseas. [24]

Between 2011 and 2016, Mandarin home speakers have increased from 1.6% to 2.5%, making it the second most spoken language at home in Australia. [24] Across every state Mandarin was the second most spoken language to English, except the Northern Territory where Australian Indigenous Language was greater. [24] Chinese immigrants have also increased from 1.5% to 2.2% between 2011 and 2016. [24] In 2016, over 300 unique languages were spoken at home, and 21% of Australians spoke another language than English at home. [27] Of individuals born overseas 61% live in New South Wales or Victoria and between 1996 and 2016, Queensland and Western Australia have increased from 9.5% to 16.5% and 9.3% to 12.9%, respectively. [27]

Education

Education Declarations

During the 1980s and 1990s the National Board of Employment Education and Training became more involved in Australia's curriculum. [28] Three declarations had a significant impact on Australia's education policies and stances. [28] In 1989, the Australian Education Council (AEC) released The Hobart Declaration on Schooling, as a first in a series to unify Australian schooling. [28] The Hobart Declaration asserted that Australian students would encounter, study, and develop a LOTE. [29] Binaco comments the motivation for this was partly economical and that the Hobart Declaration also first introduced economist into the discussions. [28] The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century was produced in 1999 by the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). [30] The Adelaide Declaration formed languages as a Key Learning Area due to the belief that cultural and linguistic diversity is valuable. [28] In 2008, MCEETYA released the Melbourne Declaration of Educational Goals for Young Australians. [31] The Melbourne Declaration attempts to set Australia's education direction for the next ten years. [28] The Melbourne Declaration inserted ‘especially Asian languages’ in parentheses after languages as a learning area. [31]

Tiering System

LOTE is becoming an increasingly popular subject in Australian Schools. The Draft Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Languages, produced by ACARA, has suggested three tiers of languages to be taught in Australian schools in 2011: [32]

Tier 1Tier 2Tier 3
Italian Japanese Arabic
Chinese French Modern Greek
Indonesian Vietnamese
Korean Tamil
Hindi
Bengali
German
Spanish

Tier 1 languages were chosen because they cater for the needs of the greatest number of students. Italian is learnt by the most students and Chinese is a national priority. [32]

Tier 2 languages were chosen because French, Japanese, Indonesian and German are some of the most frequently taught languages in Australian schools, Indonesian, Japanese and Korean are national priorities and Spanish "is a language of global importance". [32]

Tier 3 languages were chosen because Arabic, Modern Greek and Vietnamese are the most frequently spoken foreign languages in Australian homes, and Arabic "is a language of global importance". [32]

Victorian School of Languages

History

The Victorian School of Languages (VSL) was created in 1935 as a Saturday school that taught Japanese and Italian to students interested and highly academic. [33] VSL was formed due to a small core group of teachers and administrators and financially supported from other benefactors. [33] VSL mainly taught staff's interest and locally available resources as opposed to a formal, summative assessment system. [33] By 1965, enrolments increased for VSL and Dutch, Russian, Indonesian, and Chinese were offered, and the Education department would also financially support all VSL's cost. [33] Furthermore, completion of Japanese and Italian would formally be recognized towards one's high school certificate, and by 1950 Dutch would also be recognized. [33] By 1981, VSL would offer 26 languages, 17 of which was introduced by 1975. This surge was attributed to the influx of two million European migrants during the post-war period due to ethnic groups lobbying the government for additional heritage language classes. [33] However, VSL's audience largely extends past heritage language learners. French, German, and Latin are primarily enrolled by students in schools where these languages are unavailable. In 2014, VSL taught over 7000 primary students, 6500 secondary students in over 40 sites. [34]

VSL and mainstream schooling

The accreditation of VSL's education offers flexibility to some schools. The Victorian education department's decision to accredit VSL also validates its quality for parents and schoolteachers who might otherwise doubt its value. [35] VSL frees up the compulsory study of LOTE in years 7-8 by having students complete their studies after school hours. [35] Such an option is also available for senior students who desire to reduce their workload by offsetting it to after school hours. [36] However, it is important to note that the Victorian government has processes to allow other institutions to become accredited with the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). [37] Thus, while VSL's professionalism and standard meets VCE standards, it is not unique in its educational quality. [38]

Due to VSL's recognition for VCE the education department requires all VSL teachers to hold, as a minimum, a provisional teacher registration. [33] Teachers are required to progress towards full registration, but the minimum is set due to the scarce number of heritage language teachers who are qualified. [33] The education department does subsidize the attendance to training sessions. [33] Furthermore, the recognition of VSL means that the classes held at mainstream schools have access to technology. [33] One study found that institutions that rent school campuses were not granted access to their facilities. [39] With the increasing role of technology in education VSL's ability to access school facilities enables teachers to be better equipped to teaching HLs. [33]

Box Hill High School language students compare notes on Mandarin and German Box Hill High School language students compare notes on Mandarin and German.jpg
Box Hill High School language students compare notes on Mandarin and German

However, VSL is not without its challenges. Due to the pluricentric nature of language decisions must be made about which variation is prioritized and taught. This poses political considerations because VSL is a state accredited institution and different ethnic communities, and groups may be affected depending on the variations taught. Furthermore, one study asserts that language, religion, and cultural identity are closely related. [40] This poses a tension between the secularization of education as well as ethnic communities’ views and expectations of teaching HLs. [33] Another study, in Athens, found that some parents responded positively to the inclusion of religious practices as core values for heritage language learners’ cultural identity. [40] Many religious groups offer language classes as an evangelization strategy, where the Melbourne Chinese Christian Church is a notable example with a many Chinese schools linked to the church. [9]

Culture

Some local government councils across New South Wales acknowledge different heritages by running ethnic festivals. These events attract locals to celebrate diverse cultural identities in the local communities. For instance, in 2016 the Fairfield local council hosted a Moon Festival, or Mid-Autumn Festival, in Cabramatta. [41] This celebrated Cabramatta's high Chinese and Vietnamese population. The festival included traditional activities and performances such as dragon dancing, ethnic foods, moon cake. In 2020-2021 the harvest festival was cancelled due to COVID-19 restrictions. [42]

Related Research Articles

In bilingual education, students are taught in two languages. It is distinct from learning a second language as a subject because both languages are used for instruction in different content areas like math, science, and history. The time spent in each language depends on the model. For example, some models focus on providing education in both languages throughout a student's entire education while others gradually transition to education in only one language. The ultimate goal of bilingual education is fluency and literacy in both languages through a variety of strategies such as translanguaging and recasting.

Language education – the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language – is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field. There are four main learning categories for language education: communicative competencies, proficiencies, cross-cultural experiences, and multiple literacies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">First language</span> Language a person is exposed to from birth

A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term native language or mother tongue refers to the language or dialect of one's ethnic group rather than the individual's actual first language. Generally, to state a language as a mother tongue, one must have full native fluency in that language.

A heritage language is a minority language learned by its speakers at home as children, and difficult to be fully developed because of insufficient input from the social environment. The speakers grow up with a different dominant language in which they become more competent. Polinsky and Kagan label it as a continuum that ranges from fluent speakers to barely speaking individuals of the home language. In some countries or cultures which determine a person's mother tongue by the ethnic group they belong to, a heritage language would be linked to the native language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Language immersion</span> Use of two languages across a variety of educational subjects

Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including math, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the student's native language and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different types of language immersion that depend on the age of the students, the classtime spent in L2, the subjects that are taught, and the level of participation by the speakers of L1.

Monoglottism or, more commonly, monolingualism or unilingualism, is the condition of being able to speak only a single language, as opposed to multilingualism. In a different context, "unilingualism" may refer to a language policy which enforces an official or national language over others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multilingualism</span> Use of multiple languages

Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in trade, globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.

Sequential bilingualism occurs when a person becomes bilingual by first learning one language and then another. The process is contrasted with simultaneous bilingualism, in which both languages are learned at the same time.

Bilingualism, a subset of multilingualism, means having proficiency in two or more languages. A bilingual individual is traditionally defined as someone who understands and produces two or more languages on a regular basis. A bilingual individual's initial exposure to both languages may start in early childhood, e.g. before age 3, but exposure may also begin later in life, in monolingual or bilingual education. Equal proficiency in a bilingual individuals' languages is rarely seen as it typically varies by domain. For example, a bilingual individual may have greater proficiency for work-related terms in one language, and family-related terms in another language.

In sociology, people who permanently resettle to a new country are considered immigrants, regardless of the legal status of their citizenship or residency. The United States Census Bureau (USCB) uses the term "generational status" to refer to the place of birth of an individual or an individual's parents. First-generation immigrants are the first foreign-born family members to gain citizenship or permanent residency in the country. People beyond the first generation are not "immigrants" in the strictest sense of the word and, depending on local laws, may have received citizenship from birth. The categorization of immigrants into generations helps sociologists and demographers track how the children and subsequent generations of immigrant forebears compare to sections of the population that do not have immigrant background or to equivalent generations of prior eras.

Multilingual education typically refers to "first-language-first" education, that is, schooling which begins in the mother tongue and transitions to additional languages. Typically MLE programs are situated in developing countries where speakers of minority languages, i.e. non-dominant languages, tend to be disadvantaged in the mainstream education system. There are increasing calls to provide first-language-first education to immigrant children from immigrant parents who have moved to the developed world.

Intercultural bilingual education(Educación bilingüe intercultural) is a language-planning model employed throughout Latin America in public education, and it arose as a political movement asserting space for indigenous languages and culture in the education system. IBE is designed to address the educational needs of indigenous communities, and consists of various bilingual curriculum designs.

Heritage language learning, or heritage language acquisition, is the act of learning a heritage language from an ethnolinguistic group that traditionally speaks the language, or from those whose family historically spoke the language. According to a commonly accepted definition by Valdés, heritage languages are generally minority languages in society and are typically learned at home during childhood. When a heritage language learner grows up in an environment with a dominant language that is different from their heritage language, the learner appears to be more competent in the dominant language and often feels more comfortable speaking in that language. "Heritage language" may also be referred to as "community language", "home language", and "ancestral language".

The “one person, one language” approach is a popular method adopted by parents attempting to raise simultaneous bilingual children. With the “one person, one language” approach, each parent consistently speaks only one of the two languages to the child. For instance, the child's mother might speak to him or her exclusively in French, while the father might use only English.

Translanguaging is a term that can refer to different aspects of multilingualism. It can describe the way bilinguals and multilinguals use their linguistic resources to make sense of and interact with the world around them. It can also refer to a pedagogical approach that utilizes more than one language within a classroom lesson. The term "translanguaging" was coined in the 1980s by Cen Williams in his unpublished thesis titled “An Evaluation of Teaching and Learning Methods in the Context of Bilingual Secondary Education.” Williams used the term to describe the practice of using two languages in the same lesson, which differed from many previous methods of bilingual education that tried to separate languages by class, time, or day. In addition, Vogel and Garcia argued that translanguaging theory posits that rather than possessing two or more autonomous language systems, as previously thought when scholars described bilingual or multilingual speakers, bilinguals and multilingual speakers select and deploy their languages from a unitary linguistic repertoire. However, the dissemination of the term, and of the related concept, gained traction decades later due in part to published research by Ofelia García, among others. In this context, translanguaging is an extension of the concept of languaging, the discursive practices of language speakers, but with the additional feature of using multiple languages, often simultaneously. It is a dynamic process in which multilingual speakers navigate complex social and cognitive demands through strategic employment of multiple languages.

Professor Gillian Wigglesworth is an Australian linguist, Redmond Barry Distinguished Professor in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, and former Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Arts at The University of Melbourne.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erika Hoff</span> Developmental psychologist (born 1951)

Erika Hoff is a developmental psychologist and an expert on language development and bilingualism. She is a professor of psychology at Florida Atlantic University, where she directs the Language Development Laboratory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Language brokering</span>

Language brokering, also known as child language brokering, refers to the informal act of translation by children and young people between a family member and a dominant language speaker, whereby children can influence both the message and its portrayal. Because their inter-family language differs from the predominant language in society, these children are or must become bilingual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martin Guardado</span>

Martin Guardado is a Salvadorian-born Canadian sociolinguist. He is currently a professor of sociocultural linguistics and applied linguistics at the University of Alberta. His research focuses on heritage language socialization and teaching English as a second language. He is noted for his work on heritage language socialization and for recommending that heritage languages need to be studied multidimensionally as well as from macro and micro perspectives. His recent and current research respectively examines the experiences of Japanese-Canadian mothers in mixed language families in Montreal and the characteristics of mixed language parents across a number of linguistic groups in Alberta.

References

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  40. 1 2 Gomaa, Yasser Ahmed (1 March 2011). "Language Maintenance and Transmission: The Case of Egyptian Arabic in Durham, UK". International Journal of English Linguistics. 1 (1): 46. doi: 10.5539/ijel.v1n1p46 . ISSN   1923-8703.
  41. ↑ "Moon festival takes over streets of Sydney's Cabramatta". ABC News. 4 September 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  42. ↑ Boulous, Chris (26 August 2021). "'Difficult time': Cabramatta Moon Festival cancelled". Fairfield City Champion. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
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